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STATISTICAL  WORK 

A  Study  of  Opportunities  for  Women 


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J 


STUDIES  IN  OCCUPATIONS,  NUMBER  TWO 
BUREAU  OF  VOCATIONAL  INFORMATION 

NEW  YORK  CITY 
1921 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CINCINNATI 


LIBRARY 
OF  tmntmt. 

•v'MMP^VisELu  m~-. .,  _.. , 


Book 


Vol. 


STATISTICAL  WORK 

A  Study  of  Opportunities  for  Women 


STUDIES  IN  OCCUPATIONS,  NUMBER  TWO 


THE  BUREAU  OF  VOCATIONAL  INFORMATION    /YtW.  V 

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New  York  City 


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COPYRIGHT  1921  BY 
THE  BUREAU  OF  VOCATIONAL  INFORMATION 

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Press  of 

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New  York  City 


BUREAU  OF  VOCATIONAL  INFORMATION 

ADVISORY  COUNCIL 

CHANCELLOR  ELMER  ELLSWORTH  BROWN, 

New  York  University 
PRESIDENT  MARION  LEROY  BURTON, 

University  of  Michigan 
MRS.  WENDELL  T.  BUSH 
DR.  SAMUEL  P.  CAPEN, 

Director,  American  Council  on  Education 
DR.  CORA  H.  COOLIDGE 
MRS.  LENA  LAKE  FORREST, 

National  Federation  of  Business 

and  Professional  Women's  Clubs 
DEAN  VIRGINIA  C.  GILDERSLEEVE, 

Barnard  College 
Miss  MABEL  HEAD, 

National  Board,  Young  Women's 

Christian  Associations 
DR.  VERNON  KELLOGG, 

Director,  National  Research  Council 
PRESIDENT  HENRY  CHURCHILL  KING, 

Oberlin  College 
DR.  HENRY  LINK, 

United  States  Rubber  Company 
PRESIDENT  HENRY  NOBLE  MCCRACKEN, 

Vassar  College 
PRESIDENT  KERR  DUNCAN  MACMILLAN, 

Wells  College 
PRESIDENT  BENJAMIN  T.  MARSHALL, 

Connecticut  College 
MRS.  DWIGHT  W.  MORROW 
PRESIDENT  WILLIAM  ALLAN  NEILSON, 

Smith  College 
PRESIDENT  ELLEN  FITZ  PENDLETON, 

Wellesley  College 
MRS.  WILLARD  D.  STRAIGHT 
PRESIDENT  M.  CAREY  THOMAS, 

Bryn  Mawr  College 
PRESIDENT  CHARLES  FRANKLIN  THWING, 

Western  Reserve  University 
PRESIDENT  ROBERT  ERNEST  VINSON, 

University  of  Texas 
PRESIDENT  MARY  EMMA  WOOLLEY, 

Mt.  Holyoke  College 

BOARD  OF  MANAGERS 
MRS.  WENDELL  T.  BUSH,  President 
Miss  EUGENIA  WALLACE,  Secretary 
MRS.  FREDERICK  H.  CONE,  Treasurer 
MRS.  PERCY  JACKSON 
Miss  EMMA  MACALARNEY 
Miss  EDITH  E.  RAND 

STAFF 

EMMA  P.  HIRTH,  Director 
BEATRICE  DOERSCHUK,  Assistant  Director 
BEATRICE  R.  HARRON,  Eesearch  Assistant 
GERTRUDE  SISLER,  Secretary 


R/J246171 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

FOREWORD By  Dr.  Leonard  P.  Ayres  7 

INTRODUCTION By  Emma  P.  Hirth  9 

PART      I.     THE  NATURE  AND  USE  OF  STATISTICS 11 

PART    II.     STATISTICAL    METHOD 18 

PART  III.     KINDS  OF  POSITIONS  IN  STATISTICAL  WORK 31 

Subsidiary  Work   32 

Semi-professional  Work   34 

Professional  Work    36 

PART  IV.    FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED  40 

Government   Departments    40 

Department  of  State   43 

Department  of  the  Treasury 43 

Department  of  War  46 

Department  of  the  Navy 47 

Department  of  the  Interior 48 

Department  of  Agriculture   50 

Department  of  Commerce 53 

Department  of  Labor 56 

Department  of  Justice 58 

Post  Office  Department 58 

Government  Commissions  and  Boards 59 

Special  War  Boards   61 

State  and  Municipal  Governments 61 

Business 62 

Manufacturing   65 

Trade    68 

Banking  and  Finance 71 

Insurance 74 

Accounting    76 

Advertising   79 

Trade  Associations    81 

Periodicals    84 

Statistical  Service  Organizations  86 

Education    89 

Social  Work   91 

5 


6  STATISTICAL  WORK 

PAGE 

PART  V.    PREPARATION  FOR  STATISTICAL  WORK 94 

General  Education 94 

Courses  in  Statistics  95 

General  Educational  Aspects   95 

Vocational  Aspects   95 

College  Courses  in  Statistics 96 

Courses  in  Statistics  in  Vocational  Schools 99 

Apprenticeship  Training   101 

Graduate  Work    102 

Advice  as  to  Training 102 

Conclusions    •. . .   104 

PART  VI.    OTHER  VOCATIONAL  CONSIDERATIONS 106 

Opportunity  for  Women  in  Statistical  Work 106 

Qualifications  Required 110 

Advantages  and  Limitations  in  the  Work Ill 

How  Positions  are  Secured 113 

Salaries    115 

PART    VII.    SKETCHES  FROM  THE  EXPERIENCE  OF  WOMEN  STATISTICAL 

WORKERS 121 

PART  VIII.    SUMMARY 130 

APPENDIX 134 

I.     Opportunities  for  Training 134 

II.     Selected  Beading  List 150 

INDEX  .  152 


FOREWORD 

DURING  the  past  decade  the  profession  of  statistics  has  ab- 
ruptly changed  some  of  its  most  time  honored  characteris- 
tics. For  nearly  two  centuries  it  had  maintained  a  studious  and 
somewhat  secluded  existence,  with  relatively  few  members,  gen- 
erally high  standards,  and  a  record  of  continuous  achievement.  Its 
members  found  their  rewards  largely  in  the  satisfaction  that  conies 
from  good  workmanship  and  in  the  respectful  recognition  of  fel- 
low workers  in  their  craft,  for  the  material  returns  were  of  modest 
proportions. 

In  the  past  ten  years  much  of  this  has  changed.  The  number 
of  statistical  workers  has  greatly  increased  in  countries  throughout 
the  world  and  the  expansion  of  the  profession  has  been  especially 
rapid  in  the  United  States.  This  sudden  growth  has  been  largely 
due  to  the  advent  of  the  business  statistician,  but  other  clearly 
defined  groups  such  as  the  economic  statisticians,  the  educational 
statisticians,  and  the  financial  statisticians  have  grown  to  such  pro- 
portions as  to  demand  separate  recognition  and  in  some  instances 
to  form  national  organizations. 

This  increase  in  the  numbers  and  importance  of  the  profession 
is  permanent,  and  further  growth  is  certain.  In  this  country  the 
great  war  marked  the  end  of  the  age  of  haphazard  in  business, 
financial,  and  governmental  thinking.  We  have  entered  upon  a 
long  era  of  fundamental  changes  in  economics,  trade,  and  human 
relations.  Under  these  new  conditions  people  require  a  fact-basis 
for  their  thinking  and  their  planning  and  in  ever  increasing  measure 
they  must  turn  to  the  statisticians  for  the  interpretation  and  pres- 
entation of  the  new  and  unforeseen  facts  emerging  on  every  hand 
and  demanding  attention. 

Statistics  is  a  method  by  which  social  facts  are  studied.  It 
proceeds  through  the  steps  of  analytic  scrutiny,  exact  measuring, 
careful  recording,  and  judgment  on  the  basis  of  numerical  evidence. 
In  the  past  ten  years  its  methods  for  dealing  with  its  materials  have 
been  so  greatly  improved  and  extended  that  it  can  interpret  condi- 
tions, measure  relationships,  and  even  venture  into  the  field  of 
prophecy,  with  an  accuracy  and  definiteness  that  were  formerly 
quite  unattainable. 

The  present  volume  cleals  with  opportunities  for  women 
workers  in  this  field.  They  will  succeed  in  direct  proportion  to 

7 


8  STATISTICAL  WORK 

their  abilities  and  their  efforts.  For  women  and  for  men  alike, 
the  profession  of  statistics  offers  a  fair  field  and  no  favors. 
Neither  fortune  nor  family  connections,  friends  or  personal 
charm  can  greatly  avail  the  statistical  worker  in  the  achievement  of 
success.  Quality  of  workmanship  is  the  one  essential. 

In  striving  for  real  attainment  in  statistics  all  beginners  find 
one  great  barrier  which  must  be  passed  if  they  are  to  secure  any 
large  measure  of  success.  This  is  met  in  the  transition  from  the 
clerical  work  of  the  apprenticeship  period  to  the  creative  work  of 
the  real  statistician. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  method  of  statistics  may 
recognize  four  steps  or  kinds  of  work — analytic  scrutiny,  exact 
measuring,  careful  recording,  and  judgment  of  the  evidence.  Most 
of  the  workers  are  permanently  engaged  in  those  portions  which 
relate  to  the  careful  collecting,  recording,  and  arranging  of  the 
figures  on  which  the  study  is  based.  The  remaining  few  do  the 
work  of  analytic  scrutiny  and  the  formulation  of  the  judgments  of 
evidence.  A  majority  of  the  workers  tabulate  the  figures  and 
draw  the  diagrams;  a  chosen  minority  interpret  the  results  and 
present  the  conclusions. 

As  women  enter  the  profession  in  increasing  numbers  they 
will  find  many  opportunities  for  useful  and  congenial  work  at  fair 
remuneration.  These  are  the  opportunities  at  what  may  be  termed 
the  clerical  levels  of  the  profession.  There  are  other  opportunities 
above  these,  that  are  not  ready-made,  but  must  be  created.  They 
carry  with  them  possibilities  of  service  and  influence,  and  rates  of 
remuneration  that  place  them  on  the  highest  professional  levels. 
These  positions  await  those  who  create  them. 

The  present  volume  is  the  first  of  its  sort  in  the  field  of  statis- 
tics. It  describes  the  kinds  of  work  to  be  done,  tells  how  prepara- 
tion may  be  secured,  and  outlines  the  conditions  that  the  new 
worker  may  expect  to  meet.  Information  and  comment  of  these 
sorts  are  of  the  first  value.  The  whole  profession,  as  well  as  the 
newest  workers  entering  it,  owes  a  debt  of  gratitude  to  those  who 
have  produced  this  book.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  its  publication  will 
aid  in  bringing  into  the  profession  of  statistics  many  well-trained 
young  women  equipped  with  aptitude  and  ambition.  They  will 
find  a  welcome  in  a  profession  that  is  rapidly  growing,  in  which 
many  of  the  methods  are  new,  and  most  of  the  workers  are  young, 
and  which  has  immediately  before  it  the  promise  of  noteworthy 
achievement  in  a  hundred  different  fields  of;  science,  finance,  busi- 
ness, education,  and  government.  LEONARD  P.  AYRES. 
August,  1921. 


INTRODUCTION 

THIS  report  forms  one  in  a  series  of  studies  of  occupations 
made  by  the  Bureau  of  Vocational  Information  in  connection 
with  its  continuous  efforts  to  find  and  disseminate  the  facts  con- 
cerning the  work  of  trained  and  educated  women. 

The  old  time  struggle  of  women  for  equality  of  educational 
opportunity,  followed  by  the  long  and  earnest  striving  for  political 
equality,  will  soon  give  place  to  concentrated  effort  in  the  direction 
of  clarifying  and  justifying  women's  economic  status.  The  pro- 
fessional and  occupational  doors  are  not  yet  wide  open  to  women, 
economic  prejudice  is  still  being  nourished,  salaries  are  far  from 
equal,  and  women  are  still  looked  upon  as  too  unstable  and  uncer- 
tain a  factor  in  business  and  in  the  professions  to  justify  en- 
couragement or  to  merit  advancement  in  all  lines. 

It  is  only  by  careful  discovery  and  consideration  of  the  facts 
that  we  can  reach  any  solution  for  the  unsettled  question  as  to  the 
economic  position  of  women.  In  what  types  of  work  do  the  op- 
portunities for  women  exist,  in  what  lines  are  women  to  be  found ; 
what  is  the  nature  and  quality  of  their  work  and  what  is  their  atti- 
tude toward  it ;  how  important  has  been  or  may  be  their  contribu- 
tion in  each  field,  what  lies  in  the  way  of  their  advancement  and 
what  future  have  they  in  each;  what  is  their  earning  capacity? 
These  and  other  questions  need  to  be  answered  for  women  in  busi- 
ness and  professional  pursuits  before  their  status  can  be  clarified. 
The  studies  which  the  Bureau  is  making  and  publishing  should 
supply  answers  to  some  of  these  questions  and  contribute  facts  for 
the  solution  of  at  least  a  part  of  this  problem. 

The  present  study  of  the  opportunities  for  women  in  statistical 
work  was  inspired  by  the  queries  of  many  young  women  who  were 
looking  for  a  fact  basis  for  occupational  choices  and  whose  talents 
and  training  led  them  to  consider  fields  of  work  offering  opportu- 
nity for  research,  requiring  the  handling  and  consideration  of  so- 
cial or  economic  data,  or  depending  upon  mathematical  ability. 
There  is  need,  also,  in  a  more  general  sense,  of  calling  attention  to 
the  recent,  rapid  growth  of  statistical  work  as  a  science  and  to  the 
professional  and  business  status  of  men  who  have  achieved  dis- 
tinction in  this  science.  The  officers  of  some  of  our  great  industrial 
and  financial  corporations  are  men  whose  value  to  their  companies 

9 


io  STATISTICAL  WORK 

has  been  developed  and  discovered  in  the  statistical  departments 
where  every  individual  corporation  activity,  problem  and  expense 
has  been  analyzed.  No  limits  have  been  set  for  the  future  of  this 
work. 

In  connection  with  this  study  we  acknowledge  our  great  indebt- 
edness to  Dr.  Leonard  P.  Ayres,  Cleveland  Trust  Company ;  Miss 
Beatrice  Carr,  Robinson  &  Company;  Dr.  Edmund  E.  Day,  Har- 
vard University ;  Dr.  Charles  Gerstenberg,  New  York  University ; 
Mr.  Frederick  Hoffman,  Prudential  Life  Insurance  Company;  Dr. 
Horace  Secrist,  Northwestern  University;  Miss  Bessie  Stern, 
Maryland  State  Department  of  Education,  for  their  assistance  in 
giving  valuable  information  and  also  for  reading  the  manuscript 
and  giving  us  constructive  criticisms;  to  Mr.  Willard  C. 
Brinton,  Consulting  Engineer;  Dr.  Robert  E.  Chaddock, 
Columbia  University ;  Dr.  John  Cummings,  Federal  Board  for  Vo- 
cational Education;  Dr.  E.  A.  Goldenweiser,  Federal  Reserve 
Board;  Dr.  George  Havenner,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Efficiency;  Dr. 
Lewis  Meriam,  Institute  for  Government  Research;  Miss  Edith 
Miller,  National  Bank  of  Commerce ;  Mr.  Charles  Coolidge  Parlin, 
Curtis  Publishing  Company;  Mr.  M.  C.  Rorty,  American  Tele- 
phone and  Telegraph  Company;  Mr.  W.  S.  Tower,  Consolidated 
Steel  Corporation,  for  helpful  information  not  otherwise  available, 
and  to  the  officers  in  a  number  of  important  Government  depart- 
ments whose  explanations  revealed  a  wealth  of  information  relat- 
ing to  the  work  of  the  Federal  Government  along  these  lines.  It  is 
needless  to  state  that  the  study  itself  would  have  been  impossible 
without  the  interested  co-operation  of  the  170  or  more  men  and 
women  who  responded  to  our  questionnaires  and  who  gave  gen- 
erously of  their  time  for  interviews.  The  initial  work  on  the 
study  was  done  by  Maud  Bryan  Foote,  to  whom  the  Bureau  is  in- 
debted for  many  valuable  contacts.  The  study  in  its  present  form 
is  largely  the  work  of  Beatrice  Doerschuk,  Assistant  Director  of 
the  Bureau. 

If  this  report  serves  to  call  to  statistical  work  able  young 
women  bent  on  valuable,  constructive  work,  or  if  it  draws  the  at- 
tention of  teachers  and  advisers,  and  of  capable  young  women  lost 
in  the  routine  phases  of  it,  to  the  possibilities  of  professional  ser- 
vice along  this  line,  the  effort  expended  by  the  staff  of  the  Bureau 
in  gathering,  compiling,  analyzing  and  reporting  the  facts  set  forth 
will  have  been  justified. 

EMMA  P.  HIRTH. 


PART  I. 

The  Nature  and  Use  of  Statistics 

THAT  statistics  are  numerical  statements  is  generally  recog- 
nized; not  all  numerical  statements,  however,  are  statistics. 
Statistics  are  distinguished,  first,  as  being  numerical  state- 
ments of  facts  concerning  groups  or  aggregates  of  persons,  things, 
events  or  characteristics;  second,  as  expressing  facts  which  have 
been  scientifically  collected,  analyzed  and  arranged  for  purposes  of 
comparison,  for  inference,  explanation,  measurement  of  progress, 
organization  of  plans  for  future  action. 

"They  are  characterized  by  the  effort  to  penetrate  into  the 
multitudinous  phenomena  of  political  and  social  life,  of  nature  and 
civilization,  by  the  enumeration  of  characteristic  facts,  by  classifica- 
tion and  explanation. 

"Among  these  characteristic  facts  are  those  relating  to  topog- 
raphy, to  the  population,  and  its  classes  in  regard  to  social  rank, 
age,  religion,  and  occupation;  to  births,  marriages,  and  deaths;  to 
the  state  and  its  administration,  its  martial  force,  its  property,  its 
expenditure  and  receipts ;  to  the  territory  in  its  physical  aspects,  its 
elevation,  water  supply,  climate  and  fertility;  to  the  agricultural, 
industrial  and  commercial  pursuits  of  the  people,  also  to  their 
resources  and  capital;  and  finally  to  their  strength,  their  riches, 
their  morality,  their  public-spiritedness,  their  social  and  religious 
culture,  and  to  their  enjoyment  of  life  in  its  outward  manifesta- 
tions. All  of  these  facts  are  to  be  ascertained  in  reference  to  actual 
status  and  to  changes  in  the  course  of  time."  3 

The  significance  of  facts  and  their  use  as  a  basis  in  deciding 
practical  methods  of  procedure  are  more  and  more  recognized  in 
many  different  fields  of  work.  Facts,  accurately  assembled  and 
clearly  presented,  rather  than  intuition  or  custom  are  rapidly  be- 
coming the  basis  for  industrial,  commercial  and  educational,  as 
well  as  political  and  social  policies.  At  the  seventy-fifth  anniver- 
sary of  the  organization  of  the  American  Statistical  Association  in 
1914  the  president  could  claim  that  "the  life  of  the  Association 


1  August  Meitzen,  History,  Theory  and  Technique  of  Statistics. 
Translated  by  Roland  P.  Falkner.  American  Academy  of  Political  and 
Social  Science,  1891. 

11 


12  STATISTICAL  WORK 

covers  the  development  \of  -statistics  into  an  exact  science,  its  appli- 
cation to  all  fields  of  human  activity,  its  utilization  as  the  standard 
for  the  measurement  of  human  progress,  and  its  acceptance  as  the 
test  of  the  trend  and  the  tendencies  of  that  progress."  3 

Dr.  Meitzen  has  compiled  the  history  and  literature  of  statis- 
tics.2 Statistical  records  may  be  considered  as  dating  back  to  the 
earliest  state  enumerations,  like  the  registration  of  all  heads  of 
families  in  Egypt  in  c.  600;  the  counting  of  the  population  in 
Judea,  estimated  at  100,000  in  1500  B.  C. ;  the  description  of  the 
provinces  in  China  c.  2300. 

In  309  a  census  of  Athens  showed  a  population  of  21,000  citi- 
zens, 10,000  alien  residents  and  400,000  slaves.  From  the  middle 
ages  are  preserved  land  registers  of  different  countries,  like  the 
Domesday  book  of  William  I,  1088,  and  the  inventory  of  Emperor 
Frederick  II  of  the  crown  estates  in  Sicily,  1241. 

Among  early  official  inquiries  in  which  material  was  collected 
and  treated  statistically  were  seventy-five  questions  of  Philip  II 
directed  in  1575  to  the  prelates  of  Spain  concerning  their  districts; 
the  answers  were  classified  for  the  king's  use.  In  1597-1610 
Sully  presented  to  Henry  IV  his  famous  reports  on  the  state  of 
the  finances  and  the  army.  Frederick  II  of  Prussia  enlarged  the 
scope  of  the  population  census  to  include  reports  of  trade  (begin- 
ning with  1747,  seventy  to  one  hundred  different  wares  were 
recorded),  an  enumeration  of  factories,  seeds  and  harvests,  and 
ships. 

From  our  own  colonial  days  there  is  data  on  the  population 
for  Virginia  in  1607,  South  Carolina  in  1700,  and  North  Carolina 
in  1710.  In  all  the  British  possessions  in  North  America 
1,083,000  persons  were  enumerated  in  1753.  The  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  provided  in  1787  for  our  present  decennial 
census. 

The  term  statistics  takes  its  origin  from  state,  and  was  first 
used  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  when  statistics  was 
the  one  complete  science  of  the  state.  Gradually  more  critical 
methods  were  introduced.  In  1741  tables,  and  in  1782  graphical 
modes  of  presentation  made  their  first  appearance.  Numerous 
methods  of  observation  enlarged  the  idea  of  the  range  of  subjects 
and  ideas  to  be  included.  Attention  was  turned  from  mere  descrip- 
tions of  a  general  character  toward  an  endeavor  to  establish  causal 


*S.  N.  D.  North,  in  The  History  of  Statistics,  1918. 

2  August  Meitzen,  History,  Theory  and  Technique  of  Statistics. 
Translated  by  Roland  P.  Falkner:  American  Academy  of  Political  and 
Social  Science,  1891. 


THE  NATURE  AND  USE  OF  STATISTICS  13 

relations;  figures  became  the  means  of  measurement  and  proof. 
Statistics  entered  upon  its  development  of  scientific  method. 

Meantime  what  had  been  the  one  complete  science  of  the  state 
was  broken  up  in  the  rise  of  political  economy,  public  and  adminis- 
trative law,  geography  and,  in  recent  times,  sociology.  Statistics  is 
important  to  each  of  these,  and  has  besides  grown  important  in 
many  other  than  state  uses;  moreover,  its  importance  has  come 
about  largely  because  of  the  development  of  statistics  as  a  distinct 
method  of  investigation,  so  that  there  have  long  been  two  opposing 
positions  in  regard  to  statistics. 

One  group  of  statisticians  regards  statistics  as  a  science  with 
its  own  subject  matter;  a  portion  of  human  knowledge;  the 
original  and  perhaps  ultimate  social  science.  The  statistics  which 
have  been  built  up  year  after  year  on  those  of  the  past  make  a 
mass  of  systematized  knowledge  covering  the  history  of  peoples; 
if  science  is  systematized  knowledge,  then  statistics  is  a  science. 

Another  group  regards  statistics  as  a  science  of  method, 
whereby  the  limits  of  human  knowledge  are  extended;  quantitative 
logic  applicable  ultimately  in  all  fields  of  human  knowledge;  a 
scientific  procedure,  based  upon  definite  principles,  for  "obtaining 
judgments  and  conclusions  as  to  the  relations  of  a  mass  of  change- 
able and  variable  things,  by  an  enumeration  of  characteristic  qual- 
ities .  .  .  the  method  of  judging  collective  phenomena  from 
the  results  of  enumerations." 

Statistics  rests  upon  the  fundamental  fact  of  variation  in  all 
nature:  no  single  phenomenon  ever  repeats  itself  exactly.  It  is 
necessary  to  analyze  sufficiently  large  aggregates  in  order  to  deter- 
mine averages,  variations  from  the  average,  and  general  relations 
and  trends.  In  the  natural  sciences  statistical  methods  are  largely 
used ;  yet  original  observations  in  science  can  be  more  exact,  varia- 
tions are  more  minute  and  relations  of  cause  and  effect  more  defi- 
nite than  in  the  study  of  economic  and  social  phenomena ;  therefore 
more  accurate  and  more  highly  refined  mathematical  formulae  can 
be  applied.  In  social  and  economic  matters,  however,  there  is 
much  greater  complexity  with  seldom  a  high  degree  of  accuracy 
but  rather  a  wide  margin  of  error,  and  too  highly  refined  formulae 
may  not  be  applied. 

Practically,  then,  statistical  method  is  still  commonly  under- 
stood to  apply  to  economic  and  social  facts  and  the  statistician  to  be 
concerned  with  economic  and  social  phenomena,  while  the  more 
refined  methods  applied  in  the  natural  sciences  and  engineering  are 
rather  pure  mathematics.  Such  an  understanding  is  assumed  in 
the  present  study.  In  this  generalization  psychology  and  education 


14  STATISTICAL  WORK 

are  included  among  the  social  sciences,  and  biology,  in  which  statis- 
tical method  has  been  a  most  important  tool,  is  on  the  border  line : 
yet,  however  expert  a  statistician  the  psychologist  may  be,  he  is 
pre-eminently  known  as  a  psychologist ;  and  although  the  biologist 
may  make  important  contributions  to  statistical  methods,  he  con- 
tinues to  be  known  as  a  biologist,  while  the  term  statistician  is 
usually  reserved  for  those  concerned  with  economic  and  social 
group  facts. 

Titles  are,  however,  not  defined:  the  economist  must  know 
something  of  statistics  and  may  be  primarily  a  statistician;  the 
statistician  may  be  termed  trade  adviser  or  research  worker;  and 
while  real  statisticians  are  reluctant  to  assume  the  title,  it  is  often 
loosely  applied  to  anyone  engaged  in  statistical  work. 

A  few  examples  may  be  cited  to  illustrate  the  present  diversity 
and  use  of  statistics. 

Prices  of  commodities  are  recorded  and  analyzed  in  determining 
the  cost  of  living  and  its  fluctuations.1  Prices  are  compared  and 
averaged  with  such  other  business  facts  as  bank  clearings,  stock 
prices  and  trading,  building  permits,  imports,  business  failures, 
bank  loans,  discounts,  investments  and  deposits,  dividend  payments, 
in  a  survey  and  forecast  of  business  conditions.2 

The  prices  of  raw  material  used  in  the  manufacture  of  paper — 
rags,  wood  pulp,  paper  scrap,  chemicals,  and  supplies  were  com- 
pared over  a  period  of  years,  organized  into  a  price  index,  com- 
pared with  other  price  indices,  and  the  results  considered  in  relation 
to  various  business  facts  in  order  to  estimate  intelligently  the  situa- 
tion in  the  paper  industry,  to  lay  future  plans,  and  to  advise  printers 
and  merchants.8 

The  production,  consumption,  imports  and  exports  of  dairy 
products,  the  food  values  of  milk  and  the  uses  to  which  milk  is 
put  were  statistically  studied  as  a  basis  for  recommendations  in 
regard  to  the  dairy  industry  in  the  United  States.4 

The  facts  concerning  the  manufacture  of  commodities  in  the 
United  States  and  abroad  are  collected  and  analyzed  in  order  to 
find  an  intelligent  basis  for  a  tariff  policy.5 


1U.  S.  Department  of  Labor,  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  Monthly 
Review. 

a  Harvard  University  Committee  on  Economic  Research,  The  Re- 
view of  Economic  Statistics. 

"American  Writing  Paper  Company,  Index  Number  of  Paper  Pro- 
duction Costs,  1920. 

4U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  The  Agricultural  Situation  for 
1918,  Part  II,  Dairying. 

'Reports  of  U.  S.  Tariff  Commission. 


THE  NATURE  AND  USE  OF  STATISTICS  15 

Wage  records  have  been  compared  with  the  cost  of  living  and 
the  financial  condition  of  the  occupation  in  determining  a  minimum 
wage  for  the  occupation  j1  standard  wages  have  been  compared  with 
compensations  received  with  resulting  conclusions  which  formed 
the  basis  of  a  plea  to  state  legislatures  for  considering  more 
adequate  accident  compensation  rates.2 

Employment  reports  have  been  analyzed  and  compared  in  at- 
tempts to  solve  the  unemployment  problem  ;3  or  to  shed  light  upon 
the  conditions  and  instability  of  child  labor.4  The  collected  facts 
concerning  disability  days  for  a  certain  group  of  workers  led  to 
inferences  as  to  the  influence  of  age  as  a  factor  in  disability  and  the 
variation  in  amount  of  disability  in  different  occupations.5 

School  records  have  been  analyzed  to  determine  the  increase  in 
the  cost  of  education,  teachers'  salaries  were  compared  with  the 
cost  of  living  and  with  salaries  of  other  workers,  sources  of  school 
income  were  compared — all  in  order  to  point  the  way  to  the  future 
needs  and  financing  of  education.8 

The  records  of  individual  prisoners  including  such  items  as  the 
nature  and  extent  of  delinquency,  age,  civil  condition,  nativity  and 
color,  factors  in  early  home  conditions,  educational  background, 
occupational  history  and  efficiency,  mental  capacity  have  been 
studied  in  order  to  infer  principles  for  the  actual  treatment  of  the 
case  within  the  institution  and  to  point  out  causes  of  delinquency.7 

A  beginning  has  been  made  in  applying  quantitative  measure- 
ment of  characteristics  in  the  judgment  of  the  fitness  of  men  and 
women,  for  college  entrance  or  for  vocations,  for  instance,  and  we 
may  look  forward  to  a  time  when  "sufficient  insight  and  investiga- 
tion should  enable  us  to  secure  all  the  advantages  of  the  impres- 
sionistic judgment  (except  its  speed  and  convenience)  without  any 
of  its  defects."  8 

"Statistical  science  has  brought  to  biology  three  fundamentally 
important  things  which  it  had  previously  lacked.  These  are :  first, 

1  Department  of  Labor  and  Industries  of  Massachusetts,  Minimum 
Wage  Division,  Paper  Box  Occupation  Decree  No.  17,  et  al. 

2  Ethelbert   Stewart,   in   Monthly   Labor   Review,    December,    1920. 
'Statistics  of  Unemployment  and  the  Work  of  Employment  Offices 

in  the  United  States,  U.  S.  Department  of  Labor,  Bureau  of  Labor 
Statistics,  Bulletin  No.  109. 

*  Industrial  Instability  of  Child  Workers,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Labor,  Children's  Bureau,  Bulletin  No.  74. 

5  George  Rubin,  Statistical  Review  of  Disability  in  the  Workmen's 
Circle;  Modern  Medicine,  November,  1920. 

"W.  Randolph  Burgess,  Trends  of  School  Costs,  1920. 

7  Dr.  Mabel  Fernald  and  others,  A  Study  on  Women  Delinquents 
in  New  York  State,  1920. 

8  Edward  L.  Thorndike,  Fundamental  Theorems  in  Judging  Men, 
in  the  Journal  of  Applied  Psychology,  March,  1918. 


16  STATISTICAL  WORK 

a  method  of  describing  a  group  of  individuals  in  terms,  not  of  its 
component  individuals,  but  in  terms  of  its  (the  group's)  own  attri- 
butes and  qualities ;  second,  the  concept  of  'probable  error'  which 
makes  possible  an  estimate  of  the  probable  accuracy  of  a  series  of 
observations ;  and  third,  a  method  of  measuring  the  degree  of  asso- 
ciation or  correlation  between  the  variations  in  a  series  of  charac- 
ters or  events."  ] 

In  summary,  some  definitions  are  quoted  to  amplify  further  the 
conception  of  statistics : 

"Statistics  may  be  defined  as  numerical  statements  of  facts  by 
means  of  which  large  aggregates  are  analyzed,  the  relations  of  indi- 
vidual units  to  their  groups  are  ascertained,  comparisons  are  made 
between  groups,  and  continuous  records  are  maintained  for  com- 
parative purposes.  From  this  definition  it  is  to  be  noted  that  statis- 
tics represent  facts  stated  numerically ;  secondly,  statistics  deal  with 
aggregates  or  masses  which  are  sufficiently  large  to  reveal  types  or 
standards  even  if  individual  units  show  wide  variation.  This  ten- 
dency for  large  aggregates  or  groups  to  conform  to  definite  types 
or  standards  or  to  show  general  or  underlying  tendencies  is  what 
is  meant  by  the  'law  of  averages.'  Statistics  finally  are  used  chiefly 
for  purposes  of  comparison.  Individual  units  or  classes  are  com- 
pared with  the  entire  group  of  which  they  are  a  part;  different 
groups  are  compared ;  and  comparisons  are  made  for  a  single  group 
at  different  periods  of  time  in  order  to  reveal  tendencies."  2 

"Statistics  are  numerical  statements  of  facts  in  any  department 
of  inquiry,  placed  in  relation  to  each  other ;  statistical  methods  are 
devices  for  abbreviating  and  classifying  the  statements  and  making 
clear  the  relations.  The  elementary  methods  are  based  on  arith- 
metical processes  of  an  easy  but  specialized  kind;  more  refined 
methods,  necessary  for  certain  classes  of  investigation,  involve 
complex  mathematical  ideas." 5 

"When  we  are  investigating  the  nature  and  causes  of  things 
and  events  in  the  natural  and  social  sciences,  we  are  face  to  face 
with  facts.  In  statistics  about  these  events  we  are  brought  face 
to  face  with  syntheses.  The  statistician  must  regard  his  figures  as 
a  sort  of  symbol,  whose  character  and  significance  are  more  or  less 
enigmatic ;  and  he  must  diligently  seek  out  all  the  probable  causes 


1  Raymond  Pearl,  The  Service  and  Importance  of  Statistics  to 
Biology,  in  the  Quarterly  Publication  of  the  American  Statistical  Asso- 
ciation, March,  1914. 

2Melvin  T.  Copeland,  Business  Statistics,  1917. 

3  Arthur  L.  Bowley,  An  Elementary  Manual  of  Statistics,  1915. 


THE  NATURE  AND  USE  OF  STATISTICS  17 

of  the  facts  he  has  symbolized  before  him,  with  a  view  to  their 
scientific  explanation."  ] 

"We  shall  use  the  term  statistics  as  meaning  aggregates  of  facts 
'affected  to  a  marked  extent  by  a  multiplicity  of  causes/  numerically 
stated,  enumerated,  or  estimated  according  to  reasonable  standards 
of  accuracy,  collected  in  a  systematic  manner  for  a  predetermined 
purpose,  and  placed  in  relation  to  each  other. 

"This  definition  seeks  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  before  numer- 
ical data  can  be  termed  'statistics'  they  must  bear  evidence  of 
having  been  collected  in  accordance  with  at  least  the  rudiments  of 
scientific  method  and  for  a  definite  purpose.  It  is  necessary  to 
insist  that  these  conditions  be  fulfilled  in  order  to  know  anything 
about  the  units  of  measurements  employed  and  the  scope  and  repre- 
sentativeness of  the  facts  given  numerical  expression.  Data  not 
fulfilling  these  conditions  may  be  numerical  but  they  are  not 
statistical."  2 

"Theoretical  statistics  is  the  doctrine  of  a  strictly  systematic 
process  of  investigation  which  can  be  properly  applied  to  every 
concrete  object  conceived  as  complex  and  changeable.  Statistics 
is  capable  of  furnishing  knowledge  attainable  in  no  other  way  as 
to  the  connections  and  relations  of  things  in  this  changing  aggre- 
gate. This  doctrine  constitutes  a  well  ordered  system  of  ideas, 
demands,  and  principles  which  have  definite  relations  to  the  gen- 
eral theory  of  perception.  .  .  ." 3 


P.  Coffey,  The  Science  of  Logic,  Vol.  II. 

2  Horace  Secrist,  An  Introduction  to  Statistical  Methods,  1917. 

3  August    Meitzen,    History,    Theory    and    Technique    of   Statistics, 
Translated  by  Roland   P.   Falkner:     American  Academy  of  Political 
and  Social  Science,  1891. 


PART  II. 

Statistical  Method 

IN  spite  of  divergent  views  among  statisticians  as  to  the  scientific 
position  of  statistics,  there  is  entire  agreement  as  to  the  de- 
mands and  conditions  of  statistical  method.     In  suggesting  the 
character  of  this  method  there  are  certain  distinct  processes  to  be 
observed. 

1 i )  A  plan  must  be  organized  for  the  study  of  the  problem  in 
hand.     The  end  in  view  and  the  resources  which  can  be  drawn  upon 
will  indicate  in  which  manner  and  within  which  limits  the  inquiry 
will  be  made  and  the  answer  given.     The  plan  must  include  the 
formulation  of  the  scheme  of  tabulation,  and  the  formulation  of 
the  schedule  which  shall  secure  precisely  the  data  desired  for  the 
tabulation. 

"Similar  problems  confront  the  corporation,  organization,  or 
department  preparing  blanks  for  keeping  records  of  their  activity, 
and  the  persons  responsible  for  the  planning  of  an  investigation 
or  for  the  taking  of  a  census.  Briefly  stated,  it  is  to  obtain  the 
maximum  of  reliable  information  with  the  minimum  number  of 
questions."  * 

(2)  The  facts  must  be  gathered  in  such  a  way  as  to  insure  their 
accuracy  and  adequacy.     There  are  definite  principles  governing 
the  collecting  of  statistical  data.     The  group  measured  must  be 
large  enough  and  representative  enough  to  be  typical  for  the  pur- 
poses in  mind ;  nothing  can  bring  statistics  into  disrepute  so  readily 
as  the  promulgation  of  conclusions  based  upon  data  too  scant  to 
be  representative. 

Units  of  measurement  must  be  accurately  determined ;  this  de- 
termination requires  a  careful  study  of  the  whole  problem  in  all  its 
aspects  and  is  involved  in  making  the  plan  for  the  study. 

In  assembling  data  concerning  wages  it  has  been  pointed  out, 
for  example,  that 

"A  number  of  distinctions  must  be  made  in  order  to  use  the 
term  in  statistical  studies.  Wage-rates  must  be  distinguished  from 


1W.  B.  Bailey,  John  Cummings,  Statistics,  1917. 

18 


STATISTICAL  METHOD  19 

earnings;  nominal  rates  from  real  rates;  and  earnings  from  labor 
(wages)  from  earnings  from  all  sources  including  returns  from 
investments,  rents,  etc.  It  is  necessary  also  to  distinguish  wage- 
rates  from  salary-rates,  and  wages  (wage-rates  times  the  period 
for  which  paid)  from  salaries  (salary-rates  times  the  period  for 
which  paid).  In  converting  wage-rates  into  wages  the  former 
must  be  increased  by  the  money  equivalent  of  concessions  and  per- 
quisites and  decreased  by  the  money  equivalent  of  time  lost  for 
which  no  compensation  is  received.  Money  wages  must  clearly 
be  differentiated  from  real  wages,  or  the  purchasing  power  of 
nominal  wages  measured  by  a  constant  standard.  When  com- 
puting real  wages  and  making  allowance  for  concessions,  per- 
quisites, payments  in  kind,  and  unemployment,  the  nominal  money 
equivalent  must  be  reduced  to  its  purchasing  power  and  added  to  or 
subtracted  from,  as  the  case  demands,  the  money  wages  similarly 
reduced."  * 

(3)  Schedules  must  usually  be  examined  and  formally  edited 
for  consistency,  uniformity  and  completeness  before  the  data  is 
tabulated. 

(4)  Tabulation  is  the  compiling  process.     The  scheme  of  tab- 
ulation involves  many  perplexities ;  comparability  of  the  data  with 
corresponding  data  in  similar  inquiries  should  be  preserved  even  at 
some  sacrifice  of  improvement  of  classification ;  there  may  not  be 
so  many  mechanical  distinctions  as  to  obscure  rather  than  clarify 
the  significance  of  the  data  and  yet  important  distinctions  must  not 
be  ignored ;  the  significance  of  the  data  must  be  fairly  represented 
but  any  significance  not  inherent  in  the  data  avoided. 

(5)  Ratios,  averages,  index  numbers  and  coefficients  of  correla- 
tion are  derived  from  the  numbers  obtained  by  tabulation  of  data 
and  are  used  for  purposes  of  analysis  and  interpretation  of  statis- 
tics.    Ratios  express  relations :  total  population  figures  have  mean- 
ing only  in  relation  to  other  figures  of  population  at  different  times 
or  in  different  countries ;  or  when  analyzed  into  the  proportion  of 
foreign-born  to  native  population,  or  percentage  distribution  by 
age,  sex,  or  race,  or  relation  of  population  to  area,  or  wealth  per 
capita,  or  proportion  of  death,  birth  and  marriage  rates,  etc. 

In  statistics  averages  are  the  generalizations.  The  process  of 
averaging  eliminates  the  particular  differences  in  the  quantities 
averaged.  When  these  particular  differences  are  insignificant  the 
average  is  a  very  convenient  figure ;  when  the  differences  are  im- 


1  Horace  Secrist,  An  Introduction  to  Statistical  Methods,  1917. 


2o  STATISTICAL  WORK 

portant  the  average  may  be  very  misleading.  The  arithmetic 
average,  the  geometric  mean,  the  median  (the  middle  term  among 
items  which  have  been  arranged  in  a  series  in  order  of  magnitude), 
the  mode  (the  number  which  is  most  frequent  in  a  series)  are  all 
used  in  statistics  and  the  peculiar  merits  of  each  must  be  under- 
stood in  their  use.  Variations  from  the  average  may  be  shown 
numerically  or  by  graphs  and  are  variously  calculated. 

"The  index  number  is  a  well  established  statistical  device  com- 
monly used  for  measuring  changes  in  wholesale  and  retail  prices 
and  rates  of  wages  over  long  periods  of  time.  Such  a  number  may 
be  constructed  by  securing  each  month  the  prices  of  a  uniform  list 
of  commodities  at  a  selected  and  unchanging  list  of  establishments, 
and  then  computing  the  average  price  for  the  whole  list  for  each 
month.  As  this  average  rises  or  falls,  it  reflects  the  general  changes 
taking  place  in  the  prices  of  the  types  of  commodities  represented. 
If  some  of  the  commodities  are  more  important  than  others,  or 
are  commonly  consumed  in  greater  quantities,  methods  of  weighting 
are  used  to  make  sure  that  each  element  shall  exercise  only  its 
proper  share  of  influence  in  the  final  result."  3 

Definite  mathematical  formulae  have  been  developed  for  deter- 
mining the  coefficient  of  correlation. 

"When  two  quantities  are  so  related  that  the  fluctuations  in 
one  are  in  sympathy  with  fluctuations  in  the  other  so  that  an  in- 
crease or  decrease  of  one  is  found  in  connection  with  an  increase 
or  decrease  (or  inversely)  of  the  other,  and  the  greater  the  magni- 
tude of  the  changes  in  the  one,  the  greater  the  magnitude  of  the 
changes  in  the  other,  the  quantities  are  said  to  be  correlated."  ! 

"Social  phenomena  are  universally  correlated,  interrelated  and 
mutually  reactionary,  and  although  this  universal  correlation  cannot 
be  established  or  proved  statistically,  it  is,  nevertheless,  a  working 
hypothesis  upon  which  statistical  inquiry  proceeds.  It  follows  that 
every  social  phenomenon  is,  on  the  one  hand,  an  effect,  and  on  the 
other  a  cause,  of  other  phenomena  of  equal  social  value.  A  com- 
plete analysis  separating  out  all  the  influences  acting  and  reacting  in 
any  social  tendency  is  impossible  and  frequently  it  is  exceedingly 
difficult  to  isolate  even  the  immediate  principal  influences.  .  .  . 
While  it  is  generally  true  of  social  phenomena  that  they  cannot  be 
completely  analyzed,  unless  in  any  given  case  some  relationship  or 
correlation  is  established  one  primary  purpose  of  statistical  inquiry 
has  not  been  achieved.  So  long  as  the  'social  tendency  remains 


1  Leonard  P.  Ayres,  An  Index  Number  for  State  School  Systems, 
1920. 

2  Arthur  L.  Bowley,  Elements  of  Statistics,   1915. 


STATISTICAL  METHOD 


21 


uncorrelated,  it  is  an  isolated  phenomenon  which  cannot  be  intelli- 
gently comprehended.  It  constitutes  an  unsolved  statistical 
problem."  ] 

''When  we  vary  the  cause  the  phenomenon  changes,  but  not 
always  to  the  .same  extent;  it  changes,  but  has  variation  in  its 
change.  The  less  the  variation  in  that  change,  the  more  nearly  the 
cause  defines  the  phenomenon,  the  more  closely  we  assert  the  asso- 
ciation or  the  correlation  to  be.  It  is  this  conception  of  correlation 
between  two  occurrences  embracing  all  relationships  from  absolute 
independence  to  complete  dependence,  which  is  the  wider  category 
by  which  we  have  to  replace  the  old  idea  of  causation.  Everything 
in  the  universe  occurs  but  once,  there  is  no  complete  sameness  of 
repetition.  Individual  phenomena  can  only  be  classified,  and  our 
problem  turns  on  how  far  a  group  or  class  of  like,  but  not  abso- 
lutely same,  things  which  we  term  'causes'  will  be  accompanied  or 
followed  by  another  group  or  class  of  like,  but  not  absolutely  same 
things  which  we  term  'effects'."  ! 

Illustration  1 — A  statistical  map   (or  cartogram)   in  which  Points 

are   used   to   indicate   distribution. 

(Reprinted  from  The  War  With  Germany,  with  the  permission  of 
Dr.  Leonard  P.  Ay  res) 


CONSTRUCTION  PROJECTS  5+1 
AVERAGE  COST  41,500,000 


Construction  projects  of  the  Army  in  the  United  States 


*W.  B.  Bailey,  John  Cummings,  Statistics,  1917. 
2  Karl  Pearson,  The  Grammar  of  Science,  1900. 


Illustration  2 — A  diagram  (or  chart  or  pictogram)  showing  the  use 

of  Bars. 

(Reprinted  with  the  permission  of  the  War  Trade  Board) 


U.S.  IMPORTS  OF 
NITRATE  OF  SODA 

FROM  ALL  COUNTRIES.' 
BY  MONTHS, FROM  JANUARY  1,1917.  TO  MAY  31,1919. 


THOUSANDS   OF  LONG  TONS 


200 


I5o    — 


ZO       - 


1917  -----  ^  --  1916  ----  jp 


22 


Illustration  3 — A  diagram    (or  chart   or  graph)    showing  the  use 

of  the   Statistical   Curve. 
(Eeprinted  with  the  permission  of  the  War  Trade  Board) 


TOTALTONNAGE  OPERATING  INTRADE  WITH  CEN- 
TRAL AMER1CA.SOUTH  AMERICA  ANDTHE  FAR  EAST 

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23 


24  STATISTICAL  WORK 

(6)  Results  must  be  arranged  for  presentation  in  convenient 
form  in  tables  or  through  illustrations  which  may  be  more  readily 
grasped.  Tables  may  contain  all  of  the  details  classified  according 
to  their  most  numerous  common  characteristics  or  they  may  contain 
data  arranged  in  such  summarized  form  as  to  center  the  attention 
upon  some  distinctive  characteristics  or  relationship  which  they 
suggest. 

Statistical  illustrations  are  graphical  or  diagrammatic  repre- 
sentations of  the  same  facts  included  in  tables ;  the  meaning  of  the 
facts  is  thrown  into  relief  and  enhanced;  sequences,  proportional 
relations  between  facts,  distribution,  etc.,  can  be  read  at  a  glance. 
Graphs  are  also  significant  as  an  aid  in  computation. 

The  various  forms  of  graphic  representation  are  sometimes  all 
called  graphs,  sometimes  all  diagrams.  They  have  been  grouped 
into  graphs  and  diagrams,  graphs  indicating  statistical  curves  and 
diagrams  including  "pictograms"  (using  lines  or  bars,  surfaces, 
and  volumes)  and  "cartograms"  (maps).  They  have  also  been 
simply  classified  according  as  points,  lines  or  bars,  curves,  areas 

Illustration  4 — A  striking  presentation  of  a  statistical  Curve. 

(Eeprinted  from  Price  Changes  and  Business  Prospects,  with  the 
permission  of  Dr.  Leonard  P.  Ay  res) 


Wholesale  prices  in  the  United  States  for  110  years. 
Prices  in  1914=100 


25 


Illustration  6 — A  diagram  (or  chart  or  pictogram)  showing  the  use 

of  Surfaces. 

(Reprinted  from  The  War  With  Germany,  with  the  permission  of 
Dr.  Leonard  P.  Ayres) 


TOTAL— +42,6i5,ooo 


MEOTOAL 
NATIONS 


01EMY 
NATIONS 


OTHER 
ALUE5 


39,£05*000 


JUUY  1 
1914 

Seagoing  merchant  shipping  of  the  world  measured  in  gross  tons  on 
July  1,  1914,  and  December  31,  1918. 

26 


STATISTICAL  METHOD  27 

or  maps  are  employed.     The  illustrations  on  these  pages  have  been 
chosen  to  show  the  use  of  these  various  devices. 

Points  are  effective  in  illustrating  distribution  or  comparative 
density;  they  are  difficult  to  interpret  in  numerical  terms. 

Line  or  bar  diagrams  are  commonly  used  in  great  variety ;  any 
number  may  be  represented  graphically  by  a  line  drawn  to  scale, 
so  that  the  length  of  the  line  is  determined  by  the  number  repre- 
sented ;  lines  are  widened  into  bars  only  to  make  them  more  readily 
distinguishable. 

Curves  or  graphs  are  a  very  important  means  of  presentation 
of  the  distribution  of  facts  at  one  stated  time  and  the  sequence  of 
facts  over  a  period  of  time.  They  have  the  advantage  over  bar 
diagrams  of  being  uninterrupted.  Two  dimensions  are  used;  the 
scale  is  planned  according  to  the  range  represented  by  both 
measurements.  A  series  of  points  corresponding  to  the  classified 
data  in  hand  is  located  on  this  scale  and  the  points  are  joined  by  a 
line;  this  broken  straight  line  may  be  smoothed  into  a  true  curve 
in  accordance  with  certain  accepted  principles.  Several  different 
facts  may  be  shown  in  one  chart.  In  some  cases  paper  with  loga- 
rithmic ruling  in  one  or  both  directions  is  used ;  a  percentage  plot- 
ting paper  has  also  been  devised  for  use  in  certain  instances. 

Series  of  numbers  may  be  represented  by  series  of  figures  illus- 
trating comparative  areas;  rectangles,  triangles,  circles  and  various 
other  surfaces  are  so  employed.  Small  figures  may  be  drawn  within 
larger  ones,  circles  may  be  segmented  into  a  "pie-chart" ;  rectangles 
may  be  built  into  pyramids — endless  variety  is  possible.  "Stereo- 
grams"  or  solids  may  represent  three  variables  but  are  more  com- 
plicated and  less  frequently  used. 

Maps  are  most  commonly  shaded  by  a  variety  of  cross-hatching 
according  to  the  magnitude  or  frequency  of  the  facts  represented. 
They  may  also  be  dotted  to  indicate  distribution  and  frequently 
they  are  done  in  various  colors.  From  maps  comparisons  may  be 
made  respecting  position  as  well  as  magnitude  and  frequency. 

When  graphs  are  used  as  an  aid  to  computation  every  other 
feature  is  sacrificed  to  the  accuracy  and  convenience  of  mathemat- 
ical results. 

"When  charts  and  diagrams  are  prepared  for  the  trained  execu- 
tive, and  at 'his  invitation,  it  is  reasonable  that  he  should  make 
some  effort  to  learn  the  language  in  which  they  can  speak  most 
fluently  and  effectively.  But  when  the  chart  or  diagram  sets  forth, 
uninvited,  to  make  its  appeal  to  the  casual  or  untrained  reader,  it 


28 


STATISTICAL  WORK 


Illustration  7 — A   second  diagram  showing  the  use  of  Surfaces — 

a  'Tie-Chart." 

(Prepared  ly  Edward  B.  Rosa,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Standards,  and  reprinted 
with  the  permission  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and 

Social  Science) 


INTEREST 

*9afci*v 


TOTAL  NET     EXPENDITURES- 1920 
*  5,687712,848 

(NOT     INCLUDING      LOAMS     AND    TRUST1    FUNDS) 

The  figure  represents  the  total  net  expense  of  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment for  1920,  and  in  addition,  the  sum  of  $1,079,181,723, — which  is  the 
surplus  of  total  net  tax  revenue  or  total  net  expenses, — applied  to  the 
reduction  of  the  Public  Debt.  This  item  is  included  with  the  current 
expense  items  shown  in  the  figure  in  order  to  show  the  disposition  of  the 
entire  amount  collected  by  taxation. 

The  percentage  distribution  of  the  expenditures  is  as  follows: 

Primary  Governmental  Functions 3.9% 

Research,  Education,  Development 1.0 

Public  Works — New  Construction 1.5 

Army  and  Navy 23.7 

Pensions    (5.8),    Interest    (16.3),    Debt    Reduction 
(19.1),  and  Recent  War  Obligations  (28.7) 69.9 

Total 100% 


STATISTICAL  METHOD 


29 


must  speak  in  the  language  of  its  auditors.  Popularized  graphics 
must,  therefore,  take  on  as  many  forms  as -there  are  types  of  audi- 
ences to  which  they  may  be  addressed.  .  .  . 

"No  system  of  charts  and  diagrams  can  be  better  than  the 
facts  and  analyses  upon  which  it  is  based.  Up  to  a  certain  point, 
a  clever  use  of  graphics  will  illuminate  and  make  significant  even 
the  crudest  system  of  records ;  but  the  possibilities  in  this  direction 
will  soon  be  exhausted  if  the  fundamental  accounts  and  statistics 
are  in  themselves  inadequate. 

Illustration  8 — A  statistical  Map   (or  cartogram)  showing  the  use 

of  cross-hatching. 

(Eeprlnted  from  The  War  With  Germany,  with  the  permission  of 
Dr.  Leonard  P.  Ay  res) 


Per  cent  of  drafted  men  passing  physical  examination,  by  States 

"On  the  other  hand,  the  complexities  and  magnitudes  of  many 
modern  business  and  industrial  operations  are  so  great  that  even 
the  most  thoroughly  trained  executive  backed  up  by  the  best  system 
of  records  and  accounts,  will  be  aided  very  greatly  in  carrying  the 
load  of  administration  if  masses  of  figures  are  made  easy  of  com- 
prehension by  reduction  to  graphical  form."  ] 


1  M.  C.  Rorty,  Making  Statistics  Talk,  in  Industrial  Management, 
December,  1920,  January,   1921. 


30  STATISTICAL  WORK 

There  are  definite  limitations  to  the  proper  use  of  graphic 
forms  of  representation.  To  guard  against  the  careless  and  mis- 
leading use  of  them  a  joint  committee  representing  several  engi- 
neering and  statistical  societies  has  been  studying  the  problem  of 
standardization  of  graphic  presentation.1 

(7)  The  purpose  of  statistical  method  is  attained  in  the  com- 
parison and  interpretation  of  the  facts  gathered,  classified  and 
combined  into  aggregates — the  synthesis,  the  conclusions  drawn 
from  the  premises  offered  by  properly  collected  and  analyzed  data. 
This  is  evidently  the  crux  of  the  whole  matter — the  procedure 
from  the  descriptive  material  to  a  judgment  of  quantity,  causality, 
or  future  probability.  It  requires  the  scientific  spirit  to  hold  a 
purpose  in  mind,  to  suspend  judgment  until  satisfactory  facts  are 
at  hand,  and  to  interpret  such  facts  without  bias.  Statistics  do  not 
answer  questions  nor  support  conclusions  independently  of  those 
who  manipulate  them.  Judgment,  candor  and  integrity  in  their 
use  are  necessary  at  every  step. 

The  writing  of  reports  is  an  important  concluding  process. 
Results  must  be  expressed  with  clearness. 


1  Joint  Committee  on  Standards  for  Graphic  Presentation.  Pre- 
liminary Report  in  the  Quarterly  Publication  of  the  American  Statis- 
tical Association,  December,  1915. 


PART  III. 

Kinds  of  Positions  in  Statistical  Work 

STATISTICAL  WORK  involves  the  services  of  many  persons 
who  carry  out  subsidiary  tasks  and  of  comparatively  few  per- 
sons who  bear  the  main  responsibility — plan  the  work,  do  the 
thinking  and  draw  the  conclusions.  Positions  and  terms  have  not 
become  standardized.  There  are  so-called  "statisticians"  who  have 
no  technical  knowledge  of  the  subject  in  reference  to  which  the 
statistics  are  compiled,  whose  work  requires  practical  skill  rather 
than  scientific  understanding ;  there  are,  on  the  other  hand,  "clerks" 
who  have  acquired  considerable  technical  knowledge  and  who  carry 
a  large  measure  of  responsibility.  The  general  distinction  between 
the  subordinate  and  the  responsible,  directive  work  must  be  kept 
steadily  in  mind.  Dr.  Lewis  Meriam  discusses  this  distinction  as 
follows : 

"The  clerk  must  know  that  a  fact  is,  or  that  a  certain  thing  is 
done.  The  scientist  must  know  the  philosophy  that  underlies  the 
fact  and  the  reason  that  underlies  the  procedure.  It  is  enough  for 
one  of  our  statistical  clerks  to  know  that  a  given  country  lies  in  a 
given  Trade  Region.  Our  geographer  must  be  able  to  tell  us  why 
it  is  placed  in  that  Trade  Region  rather  than  in  the  one  to  the  south 
or  to  the  north.  The  clerk  knows  where  the  Trade  Region  bound- 
aries run,  the  scientist  knows  why  they  run  that  way.  The  clerk 
knows  that  certain  commodities  are  consolidated  for  a  given  tabula- 
tion and  then  converted.  The  commodity  expert  knows  why  fig- 
ures for  vegetable  oils  as  a  group  are  more  useful  than  those  for 
each  oil  separately.  These  are  illustrations  from  our  Shipping 
Board  experience.  Others  can  be  found  almost  anywhere.  Some 
people  call  what  I  have  termed  a  clerical  knowledge  a  working 
knowledge  or  a  practical  knowledge.  The  scientific  knowledge  is 
a  practical  as  well  as  a  theoretical." 

For  the  person  of  broad  general  education  and  training  in 
statistical  technique  various  forms  of  subordinate  work  offer  the 
opportunity  for  apprenticeship  and  preparation  for  professional 
work.  For  others  the  subsidiary  positions  in  themselves  offer 
differentiated  opportunity  for  useful  and  satisfying  work. 

31 


32  STATISTICAL  WORK 

Since  statistical  work  as  a  vocation  is  still  in  a  formative 
stage,  and  since  the  general  demand  for  people  to  do  such  work 
is  recent,  definitions  of  positions  are  lacking  and  lines  of  promotion 
are  indefinite.  The  following  classification  is  based  upon  the 
terms  used  by  statistical  workers  who  have  reported  for  this  study, 
and  the  work  included  under  each. 

SUBSIDIARY  WORK 

Statistical  Machine  Operator.  There  are  various  wonderful 
machines  for  computing,  assorting,  card  punching  and  tabulating 
which  are  used  in  the  classification  of  data.  The  manager  of  the 
auditor's  department  of  a  large  railroad  reports  that  his  "chief 
statistician  is  a  machine."  When  "statistics"  consist  of  repeated 
reports  on  similar  subjects  this  is  possible.  Machines  multiply, 
divide  and  give  totals ;  punch,  mark  and  give  results  in  code,  veri- 
fied also  by  machine.  Finally  the  Hollerith  or  the  Powers  machine, 
distinct  from  the  computing  machines  and  ordinarily  handled  by 
a  different  staff,  tabulates  the  full  result  in  figures  after  the  code 
cards  have  been  distributed  to  the  right  section  by  sorting  ma- 
chines. The  use  of  the  machines  is  taught  in  the  office.  Their 
operation  requires  a  certain  technique  and  skill  but  in  itself  is 
routine  work. 

It  is  often  combined  with  clerical  work  of  varying  degrees  of 
responsibility — the  verification  of  the  classification ;  filing  of  cards ; 
symbolizing  schedules,  questionnaires,  reports  and  other  documents 
according  to  a  code  to  be  used  in  punching,  which  requires  that  the 
worker  carry  codes  and  classifications  in  mind  and  acquire  and 
apply  a  thorough  clerical  knowledge  of  the  subject  matter  involved. 

Computing  and  tabulating  machines  are  used  in  a  large  variety 
of  organizations  in  which  records  must  be  kept,  as  well  as  in  statis- 
tical departments  and  the  subject  matter  of  the  records  differs 
widely.  For  example :  an  operator  of  tabulating  machines  who 
works  for  a  board  of  public  education  handles  teachers'  and  chil- 
dren's health  reports,  school  census  reports,  and  reports  on  ex- 
penditure of  labor  and  material  in  the  schools.  In  the  manufac- 
tures division  of  the  Census  Bureau  a  machine  operator  may  be 
tabulating  census  returns  of  industries  according  to  states,  kinds 
of  products  manufactured,  quantity  of  products,  rank  by  value  of 
products,  or  the  distribution  of  workers  engaged  in  manufactures. 
All  this  information  may  be  indicated  by  code  on  one  card  and 
the  machine  be  adjusted  to  secure  the  desired  summaries. 

An  experienced  operator  may  become  supervisor  of  a  division 
of  statistical  machines. 


KINDS  OF  POSITIONS  IN  STATISTICAL  WORK  33 

Computer.  A  computer  applies  to  collected  facts  the  necessary 
mathematical  operations  for  analysis  and  development  of  signifi- 
cant derived  figures ;  to  insure  absolute  accuracy  all  work  must  be 
verified ;  statistical  machines  may  or  may  not  be  used.  The  com- 
puter needs  to  know  the  subjects  to  which  the  statistics  relate  well 
enough  to  understand  what  results  are  desired. 

A  computer  in  an  insurance  company,  for  example,  may  figure 
ratios  by  means  of  the  millionaire  machine  and  slide  rule,  find 
averages,  find  differentials  and  arrange  tables  on  a  uniform  base 
for  purposes  of  comparison ;  or  she  may  keep  records  of  all  policies 
in  force,  which  are  changed  from  month  to  month,  figure  all  policy 
values,  new  rates,  reinsurance,  and  the  valuation  of  the  policies  at 
the  end  of  the  year  for  the  annual  statements.  In  shipping,  a  com- 
puter figures  tonnage,  converts  the  various  customary  units  of  all 
commodities  to  long  tons,  figures  percentages,  insurance  tables,  etc. 

A  computer  may  become  office  supervisor  or  assistant  to  the 
chief  of  the  computing  section,  or  chief  of  the  computing  section. 
An  assistant  to  the  chief  of  a  computing  section  describes  her  work 
as  including  principally  verification  of  statistical  data  for  which  it 
is  necessary  to  understand  the  ultimate  aim  and  use  of  the  data, 
some  compiling  and  computing,  and  supervision  in  the  absence 
of  the  chief. 

The  chief  or  head  of  a  computing  section  receives  all  orders  for 
computing  jobs  and  plans  and  verifies  the  work ;  in  a  smaller  organ- 
ization she  may  also  collect  data  and  do  preliminary  drafting. 

Statistical  Draftsman.  The  work  of  a  statistical  draftsman  is 
the  arrangement  of  data  in  form  for  interpretation  and  presenta- 
tion in  diagrams,  pictures,  models,  maps,  charts  or  graphs.  Train- 
ing in  mechanical  drafting  or  in  the  drawing  of  graphs  is  required. 
There  is  frequently  considerable  chance  for  originality  and  discrim- 
ination in  planning  what  form  will  be  most  significant  for  the 
presentation  of  various  kinds  of  data.  A  degree  of  skill  is  essen- 
tial, and  some  comprehension  of  the  subject  matter  and  the  pur- 
poses of  the  statistics  is  involved. 

A  statistical  draftsman  may,  for  instance,  spend  days  in  pains- 
taking cross-hatching  of  various  sections  of  maps,  with  different 
shadings  to  represent  quantities  which  will  indicate  comparative 
amounts  of  production  of  cotton  or  grain ;  or  she  may  fill  in  colors 
on  maps  to  show  comparative  working  hours  for  women  in  differ- 
ent states ;  or  she  may  be  chiefly  engaged  in  plotting  graphs  from 
statistical  data  to  show  the  increase  in  railroad  miles  per  thousand 
population  compared  with  the  increase  of  bank  deposits  per  capita, 


34  STATISTICAL  WORK 

or  the  fluctuation  in  wholesale  commodity  purchasing  power  of  the 
dollar.  It  is  in  the  larger  statistical  departments  that  a  worker  is 
employed  for  drafting  only.  Frequently  drafting  is  combined  with 
computing  or  with  other  clerical  work.  Sometimes  clerks  engaged 
in  related  work  as,  for  instance,  accounting,  are  taught  to  draw 
graphs. 

In  large  organizations  there  is  a  supervisor  of  the  drafting  de- 
partment who  administers  the  work  of  the  department  and  carries 
a  large  share  if  not  all  of  the  responsibility  for  determining  the 
form  in  which  the  material  is  to  be  prepared — whether  graphs  or 
maps  or  pie-charts  or  some  other  form  will  best  express  the  com- 
parison to  be  presented. 

SEMI-PROFESSIONAL  WORK 

Statistical  Secretary.  There  are  occasional  secretarial  positions 
in  which  the  ability  at  least  to  classify  data  for  statistical  use  is 
applied,  as  well  as  stenographic  skill.  Such  positions  have  proven 
good  stepping  stones  into  statistical  work,  where,  for  instance,  a 
woman  has  entered  an  office  in  a  clerical  capacity  and  by  her  con- 
scientious interest  in  the  organization  has  found  the  latent  value  of 
material  at  hand  but  unorganized,  or  in  cases  where  a  secretary  has 
assisted  in  statistical  clerical  work  and  has  developed  skill  and 
intelligence  in  such  work  of  greater  value  to  her  employer  than 
stenography. 

Statistical  Accountant.  The  records  with  which  the  accountant 
works  are  most  important  business  data  reporting  the  financial 
status  of  the  business,  the  financial  results  of  current  operations, 
and  variations  from  normal  performance.  The  statistical  ac- 
countant must  first  of  all  know  accountancy ;  she  must  also  be  able 
to  analyze  her  records  for  graphic  presentation  of  the  current  facts, 
trends  and  variations  indicated  by  her  records,  in  reports  for  execu- 
tives. Particularly  does  the  cost  accountant  need  to  be  able  to  tab- 
ulate and  present  graphically  as  well  as  analyze  cost  figures  and 
price  data.  For  example,  a  graphic  chart  made  up  from  the  rec- 
ords of  monthly  production  of  rolled  plate  in  tons  and  operating 
cost  per  ton  will  show  in  convenient  form  for  quick  comprehension 
the  standard  cost  of  production  corresponding  to  different  rates 
of  output  in  a  steel  rolling  mill. 

Statistical  Laboratory  Worker.  Where  statistics  are  taught  or 
courses  are  given  involving  economic,  social,  psychological  or  other 


KINDS  OF  POSITIONS  IN  STATISTICAL  WORK  35 

scientific  investigation,  there  may  be  a  laboratory  worker  who  plans 
exercises,  grades  papers,  oversees  the  practice  work  of  the  students, 
and  supervises  the  collection  and  classification  of  data.  This  posi- 
tion exists  only  rarely.  It  is  likely  to  be  a  part-time  position  and 
therefore  desirable  for  one  who  wants  to  devote  the  remaining  time 
to  graduate  study. 

Statistical  Editor.  This  position  is  seldom  found  separated 
from  more  general  statistical  work  and  varies  considerably  in  re- 
quirements. One  who  is  employed  as  statistical  editor  may  be  re- 
sponsible for  seeing  that  statistical  reports  are  put  into  printable 
form  and  order;  that  there  is  a  clear,  logical  statement  of  the 
material ;  that  statistics  and  manuscripts  are  edited  for  publication 
and  that  the  process  of  publication  is  properly  carried  out.  She 
must  understand  both  the  material  and  the  methods  applied  to  it. 

One  such  editor  assists  in  the  preparation  for  publication  of  the 
current  business  forecast  of  a  statistical  organization ;  another  pre- 
pares for  publication  statistics  and  manuscript  on  which  others  have 
worked  and  at  the  same  time  plans  and  supervises  office  activities. 
In  a  health  research  organization  a  statistical  editor  receives  the 
various  statistical  reports  sent  in  from  the  field  and  edits  them  for 
printing  with  a  clear  statement  of  the  material  in  the  reports  with- 
out comments  by  the  editor.  In  another  instance  the  statistical 
editor  looks  up  library  sources,  writes  digests,  abstracts  and  annota- 
tions of  information  found,  edits  the  final  material  and  reads  proof. 

Statistical  Clerk.  This  term  covers  a  considerable  variety  of 
duties  in  different  positions  and  may  be  applied  to  any  one  of  the 
positions  already  described.  The  statistical  clerk  is  usually  en- 
gaged in  the  different  processes  of  collecting,  tabulating  and  com- 
puting the  data  to  be  presented.  Her  work  may  be  quite  routine, 
as,  for  example,  copying  figures  from  documents  and  reports  to 
tabulations  that  require  little  knowledge  of  the  subject  matter,  com- 
puting by  hand  or  by  the  use  of  machines. 

The  position  of  statistical  clerk  may,  on  the  other  hand,  carry 
with  it  considerable  responsibility  and  the  necessity  for  acquiring 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  subjects  to  which  the  statistics  pre- 
pared relate ;  as,  for  example,  deciding  as  to  the  form  in  which  the 
material  is  to  be  presented ;  assisting  in  preparing  statistical  reports 
for  the  printer ;  supervising  a  division  of  statistical  clerical  workers, 
carrying  responsibility  for  statistical  output  both  as  to  quantity  and 
accuracy;  planning  table  forms,  graphs  and  working  forms  and 
writing  titles  and  explanatory  notes. 


36  STATISTICAL  WORK 

The  broad  use  of  the  term  may  be  illustrated  by  a  few  instances 
of  the  varying  work  of  women  who  are  classified  as  statistical 
clerks : 

"General  statistical  work,  editing,  tabulating,  computing." 
"Research,  compilation,  preparation  of  maps." 
"Stenographer  and  typist  with  considerable  statistical  work." 
"Receiving  and  checking  schedules  and  tabulating  the  informa- 
tion they  contain." 

"Arranging  and  planning  statistical  compilations;  responsible 
for  all  final  checking;  charge  of  the  office." 

"Copying  payroll  records ;  computing  totals  and  averaging 
weekly  earning  tables  according  to  occupations,  establishments, 
hours,  age,  experience,  etc.;  also  making  a  fluctuation  of  employ- 
ment table  or  curve  showing  the  per  cent  of  women  employed  dur- 
ing the  different  months  of  the  year ;  this  brings  out  seasonality  in 
an  industry." 

Field  Investigator.  A  field  investigator  is  primarily  concerned 
with  the  collection  of  data.  She  is  frequently  sent  out  with  per- 
fectly definite  schedules  in  hand,  charged  with  securing  the  data 
required  by  the  schedules  from  definitely  prescribed  sources.  This 
work  is  largely  routine,  but  requires  tact  in  approaching  people 
from  whom  information  is  sought  and  judgment  is  discriminating 
between  fact  and  opinion  and  in  selecting  the  material  pertinent  to 
the  purpose  in  mind.  The  value  of  any  statistics  depends  to  a  large 
degree  upon  the  accuracy  with  which  the  original  data  are  collected. 

The  work  of  a  field  investigator  may  be  more  varied  and  re- 
sponsible; information  is  variously  obtained,  through  interviews, 
questionnaires  and  letters,  from  original  records,  or  in  the  case  of 
secondary  data,  from  related  material  available  in  printed  form. 
The  investigator  in  many  cases  is  also  responsible  for  determining 
sources,  planning  the  forms  to  be  used  for  gathering  data,  classify- 
ing her  material  and  planning  the  kinds  of  tables  for  its  presenta- 
tion, and  for  offering  her  own  comparisons  and  interpretations. 

PROFESSIONAL  WORK 

Statistician.  The  positions  so  far  described  are  subsidiary. 
The  statistician  is  familiar  with  the  content  of  all  of  them  and 
maintains  contact  with  all  the  steps  of  the  processes  involved  in 
statistical  work.  "Without  coming  in  touch  with  the  actual  sit- 
uation occasionally  the  statistician  loses  sight  of  the  human  element 
behind  all  figures.  Without  tabulating  his  own  schedules,  he  does 
not  know  the  weak  spots  in  his  schedule  and  in  his  information." 


KINDS  OF  POSITIONS  IN  STATISTICAL  WORK  37 

The  statistician  is  distinguished,  however,  by  the  responsibility  for 
planning,  directing  and  interpreting  the  results  of  original  statistical 
investigations.  The  statistician  must  have  the  vision  to  select,  es- 
timate and  organize  the  problems,  and  the  sound  judgment  and  wide 
knowledge  to  determine  the  methods  to  be  employed,  to  interpret 
the  significance  of  collected  facts  without  bias,  to  recognize  under- 
lying principles,  and  to  recommend  action  in  accordance  with  such 
interpretation.  This  is  the  crux  of  the  whole  process;  it  presup- 
poses a  broad  general  background,  a  fundamental  understanding  of 
the  subject  covered  and  a  comprehensive  knowledge  of  statistical 
science  and  methods.  The  statistician  is  not  only  active  with  im- 
mediate problems  but  is  usually  contributing  also  to  the  further 
development  and  application  of  statistics. 

The  statistician  may  be  primarily  concerned  with  a  special  kind 
of  statistical  data ;  there  are  in  current  use  more  or  less  well  defined 
terms  to  differentiate  the  character  of  such  data : 

I.  Vital  statistics  are  "the  numerical  registration  and  tabulation 
of  population,  marriages,  births,  diseases  and  deaths  coupled  with 
an  analysis  of  the  resulting  numerical  phenomena."  3 

"Vital  statistics  are  the  statistics  of  life. 

Morbidity  statistics  are  the  statistics  of  disease. 
Mortality  statistics  are  the  statistics  of  death. 

Birth,  death  and  migration  statistics  relate  to  population  move- 
ment. Statistics  of  births  and  of  immigration  show  population 
increment.  Statistics  of  deaths  and  of  emigration  show  popula- 
tion decrement."  : 

Demography  is  a  technical  term  for  the  statistical  study  of 
populations,  usually  restricted  to  physical  conditions,  or  vital  sta- 
tistics, though  sometimes  applied  to  studies  of  moral  and  intellec- 
tual conditions. 

Biometry  is  the  application  of  statistical  methods  to  the  prob- 
lems of  biology.  "The  real  purpose  of  biometry  is  the  general 
quantification  of  biology.  Its  fundamental  viewpoint  is  that  with- 
out a  study  of  the  quantitative  relations  of  biological  phenomena  in 


1  W.  H.  Guilfoy,  Vital  Statistics  in  the  Promotion  of  Public  Health, 
in  the  New  York  Medical  Journal,  Nov.  5,  1910. 

2  John  W.  Trask,  Vital  Statistics,  a  Discussion  of  what  they  are 
and  their  Uses  in  Public  Health  Administration.    U.  S.  Public  Health 
Service,   1915. 


38  STATISTICAL  WORK 

the  widest  sense,  it  will  never  be  able  to  arrive  at  a  full  and  ad- 
equate knowledge  of  those  phenomena."  : 

II.  Social  statistics  are  closely  related  to  vital  statistics  and 
dependent  upon  them  for  basic  data.     They  cover  movement  of 
population,  immigration,  housing,  delinquency,  the  various  phases 
of  child  welfare,  community  organization,  public  health  and  mental 
measurements. 

III.  Educational  statistics  also  include  mental  measurements, 
whose  results  are  increasingly  important  for  educational  policies; 
they  include  further  such  administrative  matters  as  attendance,  re- 
tardation, school-leaving,  school  expenditures. 

IV.  Business  statistics  is  a  blanket  term  to  cover  statistics  as 
concerned  with  the  production,  buying  and  selling,  financing,  trans- 
portation and   advertising   of   commodities.     Industrial  statistics 
cover  production — plant  management  and  operating  statistics,  acci- 
dent statistics,  statistics  of  wages,  hours  of  labor,  labor  turnover,  etc. 
They  may  include  also  the  buying  of  raw  materials  and  marketing 
of  products.     For  the  problems  of  marketing,  commercial  statis- 
tics is,  however,  the  usual  term.     It  covers  not  only  wholesale 
transactions  but  the  whole  organization  of  retail  buying  and  selling 
with  advertising  and  transportation.     Financial  statistics  are  pri- 
marily concerned  with  bank  transactions,  stocks  and  bonds,  ex- 
change, etc.,  but  depend  also  upon  industrial  and  commercial  sta- 
tistics, as  production,  transportation  and  trade  are  closely  interde- 
pendent with  all  financial  transactions.     Indeed  industrial,  com- 
mercial and  financial  statistics  are  all  interwoven. 

Agricultural  statistics  analyze  the  facts  concerning  acreage, 
tillage,  soil,  weather,  crops,  markets,  farm  management;  statistical 
methods  are  also  relied  upon  in  agricultural  experimentation  lead- 
ing to  such  practical  conclusions  as  that  corn  grown  from  seed  from 
ears  ten  inches  long  has,  on  the  average,  longer  ears  than  corn 
grown  from  seed  from  ears  that  are  eight  inches  long;  or  that  a 
farm  of  less  than  forty  acres  in  a  certain  district  is  economically 
undesirable. 

These  various  kinds  of  statistics  are  closely  interrelated  and 
overlap  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  current  uses  of  the  terms. 
In  a  specific  position  a  statistician  may  be  concerned  with  one  or 
several  or  all  of  them. 


1  Raymond  Pearl,  The  Service  and  Importance  of  Statistics^  to 
Biology,  in  the  Quarterly  Publication  of  the  American  Statistical 
Association,  March,  1914. 


KINDS  OF  POSITIONS  IN  STATISTICAL  WORK  39 

Research  Worker.  According  to  the  dictionary  this  is  a  gen- 
eral term  applied  to  anyone  engaged  in  critical  inquiry,  in  seeking 
facts  or  principles  in  any  field ;  and  the  statistician  may  be  described 
as  a  research  worker  who  collects  and  classifies  facts  on  the  basis 
of  relative  number  or  occurrence  as  a  ground  for  induction.  There 
are  forms  of  research  which  are  entirely  statistical,  in  a  large  num- 
ber of  instances  other  than  statistical  facts  are  sought.  Statistical 
methods  of  investigation  with  quantitative  and  therefore  more  defi- 
nite measurements  are  increasingly  respected  and  applied  in  a  con- 
stantly widening  range  of  data  which  had  not  been  recognized  as 
lending  themselves  to  quantitative  treatment. 

In  practice,  the  term  research  worker  is  used  without  specific 
characterization,  to  designate  the  worker  engaged  in  any  kind  of 
investigation  or  organization  of  material ;  it  may  have  a  less  pro- 
fessional connotation  than  statistician,  loosely  as  the  latter  term  is 
used,  it  may  be  used  as  synonym  for,  or  in  combination  with  statis- 
tician; in  more  limited  instances,  notably  in  science,  it  really  con- 
notes "critical  inquiry"  in  seeking  facts  whether  quantitative  or 
qualitative.  A  trained  statistician  can  usually  carry  on  research 
for  qualitative  as  well  as  quantitative  facts  in  the  fields  he  knows, 
and  must  indeed  frequently  take  into  account  qualitative  considera- 
tions in  interpreting  quantitative  facts.  A  research  worker  is  very 
likely  to  be  handicapped  sooner  or  later  without  a  knowledge  of 
statistics. 


PART  IV. 

Fields  in  which  Statistical  Workers  are 
Employed 

STATISTICS  is  recognized  as  concerned  with  social  phenomena, 
in  discussing  the  fields  in  which  statistical  workers  are  em- 
ployed; therefore  the  natural  sciences,  engineering,  architecture, 
in  which  statistical  methods  are  used,  are  not  included. 

The  work  of  many  of  the  organizations  which  are  included  is 
purely  statistical ;  others  conduct  varied  research  of  which  statistics 
is  an  important  part. 

The  plans  for  statistical  departments  or  research  departments 
vary  a  great  deal  in  different  organizations,  and  the  positions  de- 
scribed in  the  previous  section  are  found  combined  in  a  large 
variety  of  ways. 

The  different  government  departments  and  lines  of  business 
included  below  do  not  in  most  cases  involve  work  of  essentially 
different  character,  but  rather  work  dealing  with  different  varieties 
of  material. 

Transition  from  one  field  to  another  in  statistical  work,  depends 
largely  upon  general  background.  It  is  easier  in  the  earlier  stages 
of  advancement,  for  general  method  is  readily  applicable  in  dif- 
ferent fields.  For  responsible  work  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the 
field  is  essential  and  transition  depends  upon  versatility.  A  statis- 
tician equally  versed  in  educational  theory  and  practical  economics 
can  transfer  from  research  in  education  to  organizing  a  statistical 
department  in  a  financial  organization.  Government  positions  are 
generally  considered  invaluable  for  training  especially  in  method 
and  knowledge  of  sources.  From  government  departments  women 
have  transferred  to  important  statistical  positions  in  business,  edu- 
cation and  social  work.  A  woman  will  ordinarily,  however,  ad- 
vance farthest  if  she  decides  in  what  field  she  will  apply  her  statis- 
tical knowledge  rather  than  to  consider  statistics  as  an  end  in 
themselves. 

GOVERNMENT  DEPARTMENTS 

The  Federal  Government  is  the  largest  single  employer  of  sta- 
tistical workers.  They  are  found  in  practically  every  branch  of 
the  Government  service.  The  public  depends  upon  the  reports  of 

40 


FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED   41 

the  various  bureaus  for  statistical  information  in  regard  to  re- 
sources, production,  manufacture,  commerce,  population,  education, 
and  government.  Since  statistics  are  fundamental  to  an  under- 
standing of  all  economic  and  social  matters,  it  is  impossible  to 
overemphasize  the  importance  of  the  statistical  work  of  the  Fed- 
eral Government  and  the  necessity  for  broad  training  and  vision 
to  make  it  of  the  utmost  public  service. 

April  i,  1919  101  "statisticians"  and  1,573  "statistical  clerks" 
were  employed  in  Government  offices  in  the  District  of  Columbia. 
Both  of  these  terms  are  liberally  used  in  the  civil  service  nomencla- 
ture and  each  covers  a  variety  of  actual  positions.  In  a  recent 
civil  service  examination  for  "statistical  clerk"  the  following  ratings 
were  applied :  practical  tests  in  statistical  computation,  40% ;  tab- 
ulating statistical  data,  40%;  education  and  experience,  20%.  In 
the  same  examination  requirements  in  skill  for  "junior  statistician" 
were  almost  as  great,  fundamental  background  counting  less  than 
half.  The  ratings  were :  practical  tests  in  statistical  computations, 
20% ;  statistical  methods,  including  theory  of  statistics,  20% ; 
thesis,  10% ;  education  and  experience,  30%.  The  number  of  sci- 
entific statisticians  in  the  Government  service  is  probably  consider- 
ably smaller  than  the  title  used  would  imply. 

The  need  for  more  specific  classification  and  for  reorganization 
of  Government  personnel  administration  has  been  recognized  by 
Congress  and  at  present  several  measures  for  meeting  this  need 
are  under  consideration.  Since  the  Civil  Service  Commission  ruled 
in  November,  1919,  that  women  are  eligible  for  entrance  to  all 
examinations  equally  with  men,  the  chances  for  women  in  the 
service  are  improved;  department  heads  may  still  exercise  a  sex 
preference,  however,  and  in  practice  the  chances  of  women  are  not 
yet  equal.  The  number  of  lower  statistical  positions  from  which 
a  woman  can  start  increased  rapidly  during  the  war,  and  in  the 
Government  service  as  elsewhere  much  now  depends  upon  the  in- 
dividual woman's  demonstration  of  ability. 

The  following  chart,  the  information  for  which  was  taken  from 
the  thirty-fifth,  thirty-sixth  and  thirty-seventh  annual  reports  of 
the  United  States  Civil  Service  Commission,  shows  the  number  of 
examinations  and  appointments  of  women  for  statistical  work  for 
the  fiscal  years  1918,  1919  and  1920. 

Statistical  divisions  are  organized  on  widely  different  plans,  ac- 
cording to  the  information  to  be  collected  and  in  a  measure  also 
according  to  the  vision  of  the  responsible  superior  officers.  The 
volume  of  data  handled  in  a  number  of  statistical  divisions  in  Gov- 
ernment departments  is  so  large  that  the  routine  work  is  specialized 


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FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED   43 

and  separate  sections  are  organized  for  checking,  coding,  machine 
tabulating  and  sorting,  or  statistical  drafting.  In  departments 
where  few  statistics  are  required,  on  the  other  hand,  they  may  be 
handled  by  members  of  the  staff  as  incidental  to  their  regular  as- 
signments. ^The  departments  of  the  Government  which  continu- 
ously conduct  statistical  investigations  will  be  considered 
separately.1 

DEPARTMENT  OF  STATE 

In  the  office  of  the  Foreign  Trade  Adviser  in  the  Department 
of  State  is  centered  the  control  of  the  commercial  work  of  diplo- 
matic and  consular  officers.  Consular  and  diplomatic  communica- 
tions on  economic  and  commercial  matters  are  indexed  and  edited 
and  sent  to  the  departments  of  the  Government  concerned  in  the 
various  matters  involved.  They  are  edited  also  in  the  Department 
of  Commerce  for  the  publications  of  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and 
Domestic  Commerce.  The  office  of  the  Foreign  Trade  Adviser  con- 
nects the  Department  of  State  with  the  other  Government  offices 
interested  in  the  reports  of  the  diplomatic  and  consular  offices  on 
economic,  social,  commercial,  and  financial  matters. 

The  office  maintains  a  special  assistant  for  the  editing,  acknowl- 
edgment, and  distribution  of  diplomatic  and  consular  trade  reports 
with  clerical  workers  who  collect  and  classify  such  reports. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  TREASURY 

Federal  Reserve  Board,  The  Federal  Reserve  Board  maintains 
a  division  of  analysis  and  research  in  New  York  with  a  director  and 
a  staff  of  about  fifteen  assistants,  and  a  division  of  reports  and  sta- 
tistics in  Washington  with  a  statistician  as  chief  of  the  division, 
an  associate  statistician  and  about  thirty  assistants.  The  statistical 
work  of  these  divisions  is  based  upon  reports  from  member  banks, 
reports  of  foreign  banks,  of  domestic  and  foreign  trade,  exchange 
rates,  prevailing  discount  and  interest  rates,  and  the  current  bank- 
ing, trade,  and  financial  situation  in  general. 


1  For  information  in  regard  to  Government  departments  see 
Edith  Guerrier,  The  Federal  Executive  Departments  as  Sources  of  In- 
formation for  Libraries,  Bulletin  1919,  No.  74,  U.  S.  Department  of  the 
Interior,  Bureau  of  Education. 

Dr.  George  C.  Havenner  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Efficiency  is  pre- 
paring a  bulletin  on  the  statistical  work  of  the  Government  which  will 
be  ready  for  publication  soon.  Part  I  will  analyze  the  statistical  work 
of  the  Government  by  subjects,  Part  II  by  Government  units  which 
collect  statistics. 


44  STATISTICAL  WORK 

The  annual  report  of  the  Federal  Reserve  Board  is  largely  based 
on  reports  of  member  banks  and  contains  much  statistical  material, 
such  as  a  comparison  of  the  gold  reserves  required  against  Federal 
Reserve  notes  in  circulation,  the  cash  reserves  required  against  Fed- 
eral Reserve  note  and  net  deposit  liabilities  combined,  and  the  total 
cash  reserves  held  by  Federal  Reserve  banks ;  a  comparison  of  the 
daily  number  and  amount  of  items  handled  by  Federal  Reserve 
banks  over  a  period  of  years.  There  is  published  also  a  monthly 
Federal  Reserve  Bulletin.  Each  issue  contains  a  review  of  the 
month  covering  business,  industry,  and  finance ;  prices,  discount  and 
interest  rates,  a  foreign  trade  index,  a  report  of  the  operations  of 
the  Federal  Reserve  clearing  system,  and  the  resources  and  liabil- 
ities of  Federal  Reserve  banks.  Two  women  reported  their  work 
for  the  Federal  Reserve  Board  as  follows: 

Position  Duties 

Research  assistant  and  Making   tables    of   bank   reports 

translator.  and  other  financial  reports,  domes- 

tic and  foreign;  financial  research 
involving  the  translation  of  foreign 
material. 

Research  assistant,  Bu-  Instituting  a  system  of  reporting 

reau    of    Analysis    and  international  prices. 

Research. 

The  Comptroller  of  the  Currency.  The  office  of  the  Comp- 
troller of  the  Currency  is  headquarters  for  statistics  of  all  banks 
other  than  Federal  Reserve  banks ;  these  are  the  basis  for  the  an- 
nual reports  of  the  Comptroller  of  the  Currency.  There  are  19 
women  and  9  men  engaged  in  the  Statistical  Division  of  this  office 
(January,  1921).  The  Division  of  Loans  and  Currency  keeps  sta- 
tistics of  money  in  circulation,  per  capita  distribution  and  other  data 
in  regard  to  the  stock  of  money  in  the  United  States. 

The  Public  Health  Service.  The  Division  of  Research  of  the 
Public  Health  Service  gathers  information  from  many  sources  and 
conducts  field  investigations  and  experiments  in  matters  of  health 
— the  handling  of  epidemics,  keeping  water  supply  pure,  reducing 
occupational  diseases,  feeding  and  caring  for  children.  This 
service  publishes  many  health  bulletins :  for  example,  a  report  of  a 
physical  examination  of  679  male  minors  under  18  in  the  cotton 
industries  of  Massachusetts  to  determine  the  influence  of  occupa- 
tion on  health  during  adolescence;  a  report  on  infectious  diseases 
of  children  based  on  a  study  of  6,078  cases  among  immigrants  with 
special  reference  to  cross  infection  and  hospital  management;  a 


FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED   45 

study  of  smallpox  in  the  United  States,  its  prevalance  and  geo- 
graphic distribution  during  the  calendar  year  1911;  bulletins  on 
strength  tests  in  industry  and  sickness  and  absenteeism  in  industrial 
establishments.  The  service  also  publishes  a  weekly  public  health 
report. 

"There  are  59  statistical  workers  employed  in  the  Bureau  of 
Public  Health.  There  are  7  highly  trained  statistical  workers  in 
the  Division  of  Scientific  Research,  2  of  whom  are  women.  In  the 
Hospital  Division  46  out  of  the  52  employed  are  women.  Of  (this 
total  number  (52)  in  the  Hospital  Division,  7  (5  of  whom  are 
women)  are  engaged  in  purely  statistical  work  requiring  statistical 
training.  The  others  are  engaged  in  clerical  work  incident  to  tab- 
ulation, compilation  of  records  such  as  coding,  punching,  machine 
tabulating,  filing,  searching,  etc." 

United  States  Customs  Service.  Among  the  various  duties  of 
the  Customs  Service  is  the  compilation  of  statistics  of  customs  du- 
ties, imports  and  exports,  tonnage  of  vessels,  and  shipments  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  its  insular  possessions.  The  reports 
of  the  country's  exports  and  imports  which  are  compiled  by  the 
division  of  customs  statistics  in  New  York  are  material  of  primary 
importance  to  the  Department  of  Commerce.  There  are  93 
employes  in  this  division,  of  whom  40  are  women.  No  statis- 
ticians are  employed,  as  the  work  consists  more  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  reports  on  machines,  of  statistics  furnished  by  the  various 
customs  districts  throughout  the  United  States,  than  in  the  actual 
gathering  and  classification  of  statistics.  It  has  been  recommended 
in  the  present  administration  that  this  bureau  be  taken  over  by  the 
Department  of  Commerce. 

Bureau  of  War  Risk  Insurance.  The  Government  is  conduct- 
ing in  this  bureau  the  largest  insurance  enterprise  in  the  country. 
Although  instituted  to  meet  war-time  needs,  the  provision  for  con- 
verting war-time  insurance  into  permanent  life  and  disability  in- 
surance has  made  this  bureau  one  of  great  peace-time  activity.  As 
is  indicated,  in  the  following  summary,  the  statistical  work  of  this 
bureau  is  very  largely  routine  work. 

The  bureau  employs  3  statisticians,  one  in  the  director's  office, 
one  in  the  medical  division,  and  one,  a  woman,  in  the  personnel 
division.  The  total  number  of  statistical  workers  is  176,  60  of 
which  are  statistical  clerks,  9  statistical  draftsmen,  48  abstracting 
clerks,  26  coding  clerks,  24  key  punch  operators,  2  sorting  machine 
operators,  and  7  tabulating  machine  operators.  Practically  all  of 
these  are  women. 


46  STATISTICAL  WORK 

"They  are  engaged  in  compiling  daily,  weekly,  monthly,  quar- 
terly, annual,  and  special  reports  concerning  compensation  and  in- 
surance claims  received,  pending,  and  allowed;  medical  cases  ex- 
amined, and  hospitalization ;  insurance  premiums  paid  and  insur- 
ance converted ;  checks  mailed ;  data  relative  to  the  personnel,  labor 
turnover,  and  salary  expenditure ;  other  work  reports  for  the  vari- 
ous divisions"  (April,  1921). 

DEPARTMENT  OF  WAR 

The  Adjutant  General's  Office.  This  office,  which  has  custody 
of  the  records  of  every  organization  in  the  military  service,  as  well 
as  those  of  each  individual  member  of  every  organization,  is  the 
original  source  of  all  statistical  information  regarding  the  strength, 
gains  and  losses  of  the  entire  military  establishment  of  the  United 
States  as  well  as  data  showing  the  numerical  strength  of  the  mili- 
tary personnel  at  all  camps,  posts,  etc. 

The  Statistical  Section  of  the  Mail  and  Record  Division  at 
present  (January,  1921)  includes  16  clerks,  of  whom  13  are 
women.  The  chief  of  the  section  (a  woman)  is  rated  by  the  Civil 
Service  Commission  as  a  " Statistical  Clerk." 

Office  of  the  Chief  of  Staff.  The  Statistics  Branch  of  the 
General  Staff  publishes  to  the  service  every  other  Saturday  a  con- 
fidential report  containing  statistical  information  of  a  military  na- 
ture, concerning  the  army  at  present  or  such  factors  as  may  affect 
it  in  the  future.  There  are  6  commissioned  officers  and  6  clerks 
employed  in  this  branch;  5  of  the  clerks  are  women. 

One  woman  with  the  title  statistical  draftsman  is  engaged  in 
statistical  compilation  and  the  checking  of  reports  in  this  office  and 
superintends  a  group  of  draftsmen. 

Office  of  the  Surgeon  General.  The  division  of  sanitation  of 
this  office  handles  the  vital  statistics  of  the  army ;  they  are  published 
currently  from  week  to  week,  and  grouped  into  permanent  form 
for  the  annual  report.  It  is  difficult  to  tell  what  the  peace  time 
status  will  be,  as  much  work  is  still  being  done  in  preparing  the 
medical  and  surgical  history  of  the  war.  There  is  much  subordi- 
nate work  in  this  division. 

"In  the  current  statistical  section,  one  officer,  who  has  received 
training  in  the  statistical  work  is  employed,  and  he  is  assisted  by 
two  clerks,  one  male,  and  one  female,  neither  of  whom  is  an  expert 
statistician." 


FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED   47 

Office  of  the  Judge  Advocate  General.  There  is  a  statistical 
section  in  the  Office  of  the  Judge  Advocate  General,  the  work  of 
which  consists  of  the  collection,  compilation,  and  analysis  in  clear 
and  convenient  form  of  data  from  the  records  of  all  cases  tried  by 
general  courts-martial.  This  work  is  now  done  by  one  officer  and 
two  clerks,  one  of  whom  is  a  woman. 

Army  Transport  Service.  One  woman  employed  in  the  Trans- 
portation Service  is  located  in  a  harbor  city.  Her  work  consists  of 
building  up  new  forms  and  tables,  deciding  what  data  to  include  in 
reports,  compiling  cost  and  operation  reports  relative  to  water,  rail, 
and  animal  drawn  transportation. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  NAVY 

Office  of  Naval  Operations.  There  is  one  statistical  clerk  in 
the  Ship  Movements  Division  of  this  office,  and  three  in  the  Gun- 
nery Exercises  Division,  who  collect  data  in  regard  to  engineering 
and  gunnery  exercises  and  in  regard  to  cruising,  alterations,  status, 
etc.,  of  naval  vessels. 

Bureau  of  Supplies  and  Accounts.  One  statistician  and  three 
clerks  on  statistical  work  compile  data  in  connection  with  naval 
expenditures  in  this  bureau. 

Compensation  Board.  Three  statistical  clerks  compile  actual 
costs  of  naval  vessels  being  constructed  on  cost  plus  contracts ;  they 
also  classify  and  compare  such  costs  at  different  periods  and  in  dif- 
ferent yards. 

Secretary's  Office.  Three  statistical  clerks  in  the  secretary's 
office  are  employed  in  compiling  records  in  connection  with  num- 
bers of  employees  at  navy  yards  and  stations. 

Marine  Corps  Headquarters.  One  statistical  clerk  compiles 
data  in  connection  with  the  recruiting  service  of  the  Marine  Corps. 

Navy  Property  Accounting  Office.  A  statistician  is  employed 
in  this  office  to  obtain  and  organize  data  on  naval  expenditures. 

Bureau  of  Medicine  and  Surgery.  In  the  Bureau  of  Medicine 
and  Surgery  14  statistical  clerks  collect  morbidity  and  mortality 
reports  of  the  navy  and  marine  corps. 

Bureau  of  Navigation.  A  statistician  and  41  statistical 
clerks  are  engaged  in  this  office  in  collecting  and  arranging  statistics 
regarding  office  and  enlisted  personnel  of  the  navy. 


48  STATISTICAL  WORK 

DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  INTERIOR 

Bureau  of  Education.  The  Bureau  of  Education  reviews  a 
vast  amount  of  educational  data  in  its  division  of  statistics.  A 
biennial  survey  of  education  is  prepared  dealing  with  summer 
schools,  schools  for  the  deaf,  blind  and  feeble-minded,  industrial 
schools  for  delinquents,  private  high  schools,  state  school  systems, 
normal  schools,  nurse  training  schools,  private  commercial  schools, 
public  high  schools,  city  school  systems,  colleges  and  universities. 

The  recently  published  volume  Statistics  of  City  School  Sys- 
tems, a  section  from  this  biennial  survey,  presents  statistics  for  the 
school  year  1917-1918  of  the  public  schools  in  all  cities  which  had 
a  population  of  2,500  or  over  in  1910.  One  phase  of  this  report 
illustrates  the  possible  significance  of  such  a  survey.  An  analysis 
was  made  of  the  pupils  under  age,  of  normal  age,  and  over  age  in 
1908  and  in  1919,  which  indicates  that  the  per  cent  of  under-age 
pupils  in  cities  has  increased  in  every  instance.  This  result  cor- 
relates with  two  items ;  a  greater  flexibility  in  school  curricula,  per- 
mitting pupils  to  advance  from  grade  to  grade  as  soon  as  they  have 
mastered  the  required  subject  matter,  and  the  earlier  enrollment  of 
children  in  school  as  indicated  by  the  increased  percentage  of  chil- 
dren 5,  6  and  7  years  of  age  enrolled  in  school  in  1918.  The  per- 
centage of  over-age  pupils  has  decreased,  which  fact  is  closely  re- 
lated to  the  decided  decrease  of  all  pupils  n,  12,  and  13  years  of 
age  within  this  ten-year  period.  Retarded,  over-age  pupils  are  evi- 
dently dropping  out  of  school  at  these  ages  when  most  compulsory 
attendance  laws  become  less  effective.  The  smallest  percentage  of 
over-age  pupils  is  found  in  the  first  grade  and  the  highest  per- 
centage in  the  fifth  grade,  where  over  30%  of  the  pupils  are 
retarded ;  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  the  percentages  decrease 
rapidly.  The  large  proportion  of  all  children  out  of  school  from 
the  age  of  13  on  is  in  itself  an  important  indication  of  the  need  for 
improvement  in  our  educational  system,  and  is  the  basis  of  all  plans 
for  continuation  and  part-time  schools.  The  report  indicates  that 
only  one  per  cent  of  a  city  school's  expenditure  is  now  devoted  to 
provision  for  further  education  of  this  large  group  out  of  regular 
school  from  the  age  of  13. 

This  bureau  publishes  each  year  also  a  number  of  special  bulle- 
tins on  matters  of  domestic  and  foreign  education,  many  of  which 
include  statistical  material,  such  as:  A  Survey  of  Education  in 
Hawaii,  1920;  Education  for  Highway  Engineering  and  Highway 
Transport,  1920;  and  Requirements  for  the  Bachelor's  Degree, 
1920.  The  statistical  work  of  this  bureau  has  been  following  pre- 
scribed forms  and  is  largely  on  a  fixed  basis.  Private  educational 


FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED   49 

agencies  have  pointed  by  example  to  the  kind  of  significant  statis- 
tical work  which  the  Bureau  of  Education  might  do  with  increased 
support  for  the  development  of  its  services. 

One  woman  reporting  for  this  study  is  in  the  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion and  describes  her  work  as  including  the  sending  out  of  ques- 
tionnaires, tabulating  returns,  and  preparing  summaries.  Her 
work  requires  a  good  understanding  of  different  systems  of  city 
schools. 

Reclamation  Service.  The  reclamation  of  three  millions  of 
acres  of  arid  land  is  the  work  with  which  this  service  is  engaged. 
Already  over  twelve  thousand  miles  of  canals,  ditches,  and  drains 
including  ninety-three  thousand  canal  structures,  have  been  built. 
One  hundred  storage  and  diversion  dams  have  been  constructed. 
At  present  approximately  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  per- 
sons are  living  on  the  thirty  thousand  farms  irrigated  by  the  service. 
The  Reclamation  Record  is  issued  the  first  of  the  month  by  this 
service.  Statistics  regarding  farms,  cost,  and  terms  of  payments, 
are  available  upon  request. 

"In  this  service  there  are  no  employes  engaged  exclusively  on 
statistical  work.  Statistical  data  are  prepared  in  different  divis- 
ions, e.  g.,  financial  data  in  the  accounting  division,  engineering  data 
in  the  technical  division,  and  so  on,  but  this  work  requires  only  a 
portion  of  the  time  of  those  who  may  be  assigned  to  it." 

Bureau  of  Mines.  "There  is  one  petroleum  economist  who 
handles  all  petroleum  statistics,  and  one  mine  statistician  who  is  in 
charge  of  the  statistical  section  which  is  made  up  of  4  women 
statistical  workers.  In  this  section  the  work  consists  of  reports  on 
number  of  men  employed,  days  of  labor  performed,  and  number 
killed  and  injured,  by  causes,  for  all  metal  mines  and  metallurgical 
works,  quarries,  and  coke  ovens;  the  production  and  distribution 
of  explosives ;  and  the  fatal  injuries  in  all  coal  mines ;  together  with 
rates,  averages,  and  percentages  based  on  these  figures." 

The  Bureau  of  Mines  prepares  various  special  reports  on  such 
subjects  as  Coal  in  the  British  Isles,  A  Miner's  Yearly  and  Daily 
Output  of  Coal,  and  statistics  on  petroleum  products. 

The  Geological  Survey.  One  of  the  most  important  duties 
with  which  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  has  been  charged 
is  that  of  making  an  inventory  of  the  country's  mineral  wealth  as 
utilized  in  the  mineral  industries.  The  division  of  mineral  re- 
sources compiles  a  continuing  statistical  record  of  the  mineral  pro- 


50  STATISTICAL  WORK 

duction  of  the  country,  including  weekly  and  monthly  reports  on 
production  of  coal,  and  reports  new  sources  of  minerals  or  new 
methods  of  their  utilization.  The  field  covered  includes  every 
known  raw-  mineral  product  and  commodity  of  economic  value  and 
anticipates  future  development  by  including  some  rocks  and  miner- 
als that  are  of  no  present  economic  value,  but  that  may  be  valuable 
in  the  future.  The  Survey's  lists  now  contain  approximately 
110,000  names  of  mineral  operators,  all  of  whom  are  in  direct  touch 
with  the  Survey,  not  only  supplying  information  but  receiving  it. 
A  recent  expansion  of  the  work  provides  for  the  preparation  of 
more  detailed  and  frequent  current  domestic  statistics  and  more 
exhaustive  research  into  foreign  mineral  resources.  The  division 
of  mineral  resources  employs  36  statistical  workers. 

Office  of  Indian  Affairs.  "This  office  compiles  and  embodies 
in  its  annual  report  a  number  of  statistical  tables  relating  to  popu- 
lation, schools,  vital  statistics,  agriculture,  property,  income,  hos- 
pitals and  sanatoriums,  law  and  order,  employment  and  miscella- 
neous matter.  The  material  for  those  statistical  reports  is  gath- 
ered by  means  of  questionnaires  sent  out  each  year  to  the  superin- 
tendents in  charge  of  the  various  Indian  reservations  and  schools, 
supplemented  by  the  records  of  the  Commissioner's  office. 

"The  statistical  work  of  the  office  is  in  charge  of  a  statistician, 
to  whom  is  detailed  clerical  assistance  when  necessary.  No  staff 
of  statistical  clerks  is  maintained." 

DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Probably  the  best  known  Government  reports  are  those  issued 
by  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  They  cover  every  phase  of 
farm  conditions,  farm  management,  the  production  and  marketing 
of  farm  products,  commerce  in  the  agricultural  products  of  various 
countries,  the  development  of  agricultural  resources,  agricultural 
insurance,  and  conditions  of  tenancy.  There  are  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  some  300  statisticians,  statistical  clerks  or 
clerks  employed  in  statistical  work. 

Bureau  of  Crop  Estimates.  The  Government  Crop  Reports, 
made  monthly  during  the  crop  season  in  the  Bureau  of  Crop  Esti- 
mates are  of  great  importance  to  industry  and  business.  "Prompt 
and  reliable  information  regarding  crop  prospects  is  equally  impor- 
tant and  valuable  in  the  conduct  of  commercial,  industrial  and 


FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED    51 

transportation  enterprises.  The  earlier  the  information  regarding 
the  probable  productions  of  the  great  agricultural  commodities  can 
be  published,  the  more  safely  and  economically  can  the  business  of 
the  country  be  managed  from  year  to  year.  .  .  .  With  such 
information  carefully  and  scientifically  gathered  and  compiled,  and 
honestly  disseminated,  the  farmers,  the  merchants,  the  man- 
ufacturers and  the  transportation  and  distributing  agencies  of  the 
country  can  act  with  a  degree  of  prudence  and  intelligence  not  pos- 
sible were  the  information  lacking."  : 

This  bureau  maintains  a  staff  of  50  to  60  field  workers  who 
secure  a  large  part  of  the  data  upon  which  crop  estimates  are 
based,  and  a  larger  staff  at  headquarters  which  combines  and  an- 
alyzes field  reports  obtaining  averages  from  samples.  Much  of 
the  work  is  routine,  such  as  copying  figures  from  schedules  to  large 
sheets,  which  requires  considerable  information  and  judgment  in 
agricultural  matters.  The  field  work  and  the  administrative  work 
are  at  present  done  by  men.  The  Bureau  of  Crop  Estimates  pre- 
pares also  various  bulletins,  such  as  Statistics  of  Grain  Crops, 
Imports  and  Exports  of  Agricultural  Products,  and  crop  sum- 
maries for  the  yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Bureau  of  Markets.  The  Bureau  of  Markets  issues  reports 
in  the  weekly  Market  Reporter  and  in  special  bulletins  on  the  sup- 
ply, commercial  movement,  receipts,  disposition,  and  market  prices 
of  fruits  and  vegetables,  live  stock  and  meats,  dairy  and  poultry 
products,  hay,  feed,  and  seeds,  on  cold-storage  holdings  and  on 
opportunities  in  foreign  countries  for  American  producers  of  farm 
products.  Several  women  have  carried  responsible  statistical  as- 
signments very  satisfactorily  in  the  preparation  of  these  reports. 
The  statistical  work  of  this  bureau  is  being  unified  and  reorganized 
and  will  probably  be  amalgamated  with  that  of  the  Bureau  of  Crop 
Estimates. 

Bureau  of  Public  Roads.  The  Bureau  of  Public  Roads 
gathers  information  and  statistics  covering  the  construction  and 
maintenance  of  highways,  the  utilization  of  convict  labor  in  road 
management,  mileage  of  roads,  number  of  bridges  built,  sources  of 
funds  and  distribution  of  expenditures  for  public  roads,  registra- 
tions and  number  of  motor  cars  and  total  motor-vehicle  revenues. 


Government  Crop  Reports:  Their  Value,  Scope  and  Preparation. 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Crop  Estimates,  Circular 
17,  Revised. 


52  STATISTICAL  WORK 

Bureau  of  Farm  Management  and  Farm  Economics.  Investi- 
gations are  conducted  by  this  bureau  which  are  primarily  concerned 
with  the  improvement  of  farm  practices;  studies  in  the  cost  of 
production  of  various  crops  and  farm  animals,  the  cost  of  farmers' 
living,  the  status  of  tenancy  in  the  United  States  and  underlying 
principles  of  tenant  farming,  factors  that  make  for  efficiency  in 
the  use  of  farm  power,  and  agricultural  geography.  There  are 
research  workers,  assistants  and  statistical  clerical  workers  in  this 
bureau,  with  a  separate  division  for  the  large  amount  of  statistical 
drafting  required  for  condensed  presentation  of  data.  One 
woman  trained  in  geography,  economics  and  statistics  is  preparing 
independently  a  bulletin  on  Indian  lands,  railroad  lands,  etc.,  which 
are  at  present  for  sale.  When  she  has  gathered  various  data  in 
regard  to  these  lands  she  sends  them  to  the  drafting  room  to  be  an- 
alyzed and  put  into  the  form  considered  by  the  chief  of  this  room 
most  desirable  for  the  presentation  of  this  particular  material. 

Another  woman  has  been  working  under  direction  on  informa- 
tion in  regard  to  farm  products  which  should  be  considered  in  mod- 
ifying tariff  legislation. 

Women  have  assisted  in  preparing  the  three  sections  which 
have  so  far  appeared  of  the  comprehensive  Atlas  of  American 
Agriculture. 

Weather  Bureau.  A  function  of  the  Weather  Bureau  is  to 
publish  statistics  relating  to  rainfall,  temperature,  winds,  etc.  These 
statistics  serve  a  great  variety  of  purposes  and  are  consulted  by 
mariners,  physicians,  agriculturists,  engineers,  and  the  public  in 
general.  There  is  no  statistical  division  in  this  bureau.  While 
many  of  the  clerks  are  required  to  make  mathematical  computations 
and  tabulations,  such  work  is  incidental  and  does  not  constitute 
their  main  duties. 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.  There  is  a  statistical  worker  in 
the  division  of  dairy  engineering  in  this  bureau  who  makes  special 
studies  of  the  trend  of  milk  production,  the  dairy-cattle  industry, 
the  butter  industry,  the  cheese  industry  in  the  United  States  and 
other  countries,  and  keeps  statistics  of  the  balance  of  trade  in  dairy 
products  between  the  United  States  and  foreign  countries. 

The  work  that  women  are  doing  in  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture may  be  illustrated  further  by  an  outline  of  three  positions  held 
in  this  department  and  the  duties  performed  in  them  by  women 
who  gave  information  for  this  study.1 


1  See  also  pages  122,  124. 


FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED    53 

Position  Duties 

Statistical  Research  Compilations  along  lines  of  spe- 

Clerk,    Bureau  of   Crop  cial    investigations    of    the    Bureau 

Estimates.  requiring  an  understanding  of  what 

the  investigator  has  in  mind;  prep- 
aration of  statistical  tables  for  the 
printer;  research  work  requiring  a 
knowledge  of  statistical  sources  of 
information,  United  States  equiva- 
lents of  foreign  weights,  measures 
and  values;  indexing,  charting,  and 
proof-reading. 

Statistical  Clerk,  Office  Research  and  compilation  of  re- 

of  Farm  Management.  suits,   preparation    of   maps    show- 

ing agricultural  condition  and  com- 
merce in  agricultural  products  of 
various  countries. 

Statistical     Clerk     and  Stenographer   to    the   chief   of   a 

Stenographer.  section  with  frequent  statistical  as- 

signments. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  COMMERCE 

Bureau  of  the  Census.  This  bureau  is  probably  the  greatest 
statistical  office  in  the  world.  It  is  responsible  not  only  for  the 
decennial  enumeration  of  the  population  of  the  country  with  age, 
sex,  occupations,  wealth,  taxation,  public  debt,  etc.,  but  also  for  a 
decennial  census  of  agriculture  and  quinquennial  census  of  manu- 
factures. The  vital  statistics  of  states  and  cities  are  collected, 
tabulated  and  analyzed;1  numerous  special  statistical  inquiries  re- 
quired by  law  or  by  Congress  are  conducted,  as  for  example 
monthly  and  semi-monthly  cotton  and  cotton-seed  statistics,  quar- 
terly tobacco  statistics,  an  investigation  of  the  proportion  of  the 
population  which  owns  its  homes.  Recent  publications  of  the  bu- 
reau are  reports  of  cotton-production  in  the  United  States,  crop  of 
1919,  of  the  financial  statistics  of  states,  1919,  of  the  stocks  of  leaf 
tobacco  and  the  American  production,  import,  export  and  consump- 
tion of  tobacco  and  tobacco  products,  I9I9-2  The  reports  of  the 
Bureau  of  the  Census  are  very  widely  used  as  fundamental  social 
and  economic  data. 


1  See  John  W.  Trask.  Vital  Statistics,  a  Discussion  of  what  they 
are  and  their  Uses  in  Public  Health  Administration.  United  States 
Public  Health  Service,  1915. 

a  See  Catalogue  of  Publications  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census. 


54  STATISTICAL  WORK 

A  vast  amount  of  work  is  required  for  the  collection,  analysis 
and  presentation  of  data  in  these  inclusive  reports.1  March  31, 
1921,  the  total  number  of  employes  was  2,830,  of  whom  2,024 
were  women.  The  positions  held  by  them  were  as  follows : 

Expert  chiefs  of  divisions  at  $2,500  per  annum. ...  3 

Statistical  experts  at  $2,000  per  annum 7 

Stenographers  at  from  $1,500  to  $1,800  per  annum  5 

Clerks  at  from  $900  to  $1,800  per  annum J>549 

Operatives  at  from  $900  to  $1,380  per  annum. ...  451 

Sub-clerical  at  from  $720  to  $1,000  per  annum. ...  3 

Special  agents  at  from  $3  to  $6  per  diem 6 

2,024 

A  large  proportion  of  these  employes  are  temporary  and 
needed  for  work  on  the  decennial  census.  During  intercensal 
periods  the  force  has  consisted  of  between  six  and  seven  hundred 
employes. 

The  work  is  organized  into  specialized  divisions,  with  super- 
visors who  are  in  some  instances  women.  In  the  census  of  manu- 
factures, for  instance,  schedules  are  prepared  by  the  director  and 
his  assistants  with  the  co-operation  and  advice  of  the  industries 
concerned.  These  schedules  are  sent  out  by  mail  and  when  replies 
are  delayed  or  unsatisfactory,  field  agents  follow.  The  returned 
schedules  are  checked,  edited  and  coded  by  different  specialized 
workers,  then  sorted  and  tabulated  by  machines.  The  condensed 
results  go  to  members  of  the  staff,  each  charged  with  particular 
industries,  who  prepare  the  final  reports.  There  are,  for  instance, 
women  who  are  in  charge  of  silk,  buttons,  needles  and  pins,  and 
meat  industries,  who  write  the  reports  for  the  statistics  of  the  man- 
ufacturing of  these  products.  They  are  not  responsible  for 
schedules,  table  forms  or  compilation  processes,  but  for  the  report 
writing.  This  implies  a  knowledge  of  the  industry,  acquired 
chiefly  by  experience  in  the  bureau,  though  in  some  cases  by 
experience  in  the  industry,  and  a  grasp  of  the  statistical  items.  A 
chief  of  a  division  in  this  bureau  described  her  work  for  this 
study:  "preparing  instructions  regarding  the  various  processes 
of  population  statistics  or  special  investigations  and  editing 
the  text  which  other  workers  prepare."  Imagination,  with  a  funda- 


1  For  a  description  of  the  organization  for  the  fourteenth  decennial 
census  see  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Department  of  Commerce,  1920. 
Also,  the  second  report  of  the  Joint  Census  Advisory  Committee  of 
the  American  Statistical  Association  and  the  American  Economic 
Association,  Quarterly  Publication  of  the  American  Statistical  Asso- 
ciation, December,  1920. 


FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED    55 

mental  training  in  economics  is  essential  for  understanding  the 
significance  of  these  statistical  reports  and  for  planning  such  anal- 
yses as  will  make  them  of  the  utmost  possible  service. 

The  administration  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census  is  working  to- 
ward the  improved  serviceability  of  census  reports.  At  the  request 
of  the  Secretary  of  Commerce,  6  members  have  been  appointed  by 
the  American  Statistical  Association  and  the  American  Economics 
Association  to  serve  as  an  advisory  committee  of  the  census.  The 
guiding  policies  of  this  committee  are  (i)  to' aid  the  Bureau  of  the 
Census  to  expedite  the  publication  of  the  basic  tables  relating  to 
population,  agriculture,  and  manufacture,  (2)  to  aid  the  bureau  to 
secure  an  adequate  scientific  analysis  of  the  data,  a  matter  of  press- 
ing importance  in  deciding  the  value  and  character  of  the  four- 
teenth census.1 

Bureau  of  Fisheries.  This  bureau  prepares  statistical  reports 
on  the  fisheries  of  various  sections  of  the  country,  with  special 
reports  such  as  "a  statement  of  the  quantity  and  values  of  certain 
fishery  products  landed  at  Boston  and  Gloucester,  Massachusetts, 
and  Portland,  Maine,  by  American  fishing  vessels  during  the  month 
of  May,  1920." 

Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce.  The  division  of 
statistics  of  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce,  with 
some  30  employes,  analyzes  the  trade  of  the  United  States  with 
the  world,  showing  the  imports  and  exports  by  articles  in  the  trade 
with  each  foreign  country.  Monthly  and  annual  reports  are  pre- 
pared, based  upon  the  returns  of  customs  officers.  Since  the  rela- 
tion is  so  close  between  the  statistical  work  of  this  division  and 
that  of  the  Bureau  of  Customs  Statistics,  it  has  been  recommended 
to  Congress  that  the  two  offices  be  amalgamated  in  the  Bureau  of 
Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce. 

The  research  division  of  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic 
Commerce  deals  with  statistics  of  foreign  countries,  and  such  ques- 
tions relating  to  the  trade  of  the  United  States  as  come  to  the 
bureau.  If,  for  example,  the  bureau  were  asked  what  dyes  Ger- 
many exports  now,  the  research  division  would  find  the  correct 
answer.  There  are  at  present  (April,  1921)  14  employes  assigned 
to  duty  in  the  research  division,  9  of  whom  are  women. 

The  bureau  sends  out  trade  commissioners  for  the  investigation 
of  special  subjects  and  has  commercial  attaches  stationed  in  various 

1  See  first  report  of  the  Joint  Census  Advisory  Committee  of  the 
American  Statistical  Association  and  the  American  Economic  Asso- 
ciation, American  Economic  Review,  Supplement  XI,  March,  1920. 


56  STATISTICAL  WORK 

foreign  countries.  From  the  reports  of  these  agents  and  of  the  con- 
suls of  the  State  Department  as  well  as  from  foreign  trade  reports, 
customs  reports,  and  various  other  sources,  current  trade  informa- 
tion is  compiled. 

The  bureau  has  been  preparing  pamphlets  giving  the  titles  and 
descriptions  of  the  principal  statistical  publications  of  foreign  coun- 
tries, and  the  methods  used  by  each  important  country  in  comput- 
ing the  values  reported  in  its  foreign  trade  statistics.  The  publica- 
tions of  the  bureau  include  the  daily  bulletin  Commerce  Reports,  a 
monthly  summary  of  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  United  States, 
an  annual  pamphlet  giving  prices  of  raw  materials  in  the  leading 
markets  of  the  United  States,  an  annual  Statistical  Abstract  of  the 
United  States,  with  various  special  reviews  of  trade  and  bulletins 
such  as:  Jewelry  and  Silverware  in  Cuba;  Import  and  Export 
Schedules  of  Italy;  Trade  Opportunities  in  France,  and  A  Com- 
mercial Handbook  of  China.1 

One  recent  number  of  Commerce  Reports  contained  informa- 
tion in  regard  to  the  paper  and  pulp  situation  in  Sweden,  the  de- 
pressed condition  of  the  rubber  market  in  the  Netherlands,  coffee 
shipments  from  the  port  of  Maracaibo,  Venezuela,  the  general  ten- 
dencies of  Japan's  foreign  trade  in  1920,  the  Czecho-Slovak  cotton 
situation,  Canada's  leather,  boot  and  shoe  industry,  Esthonian  for- 
eign trade  for  the  last  six  months  of  1920,  the  trade  of  Persia  in 
vegetable  oils  and  vegetable  oil  material,  with  a  summary  of  one 
hundred  years  of  American  foreign  trade. 

One  of  the  women  employed  in  this  bureau  described  her  work 
as  including  the  compilation  of  data  from  records  received  from 
collectors  of  customs  showing  export  and  import  returns,  and  from 
various  other  Government  sources,  covering  every  commodity  in 
the  commerce  of  the  world ;  compilation  of  tables  and  writing  of 
reports. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  LABOR 

The  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics.2  The  Bureau  of  Labor  Statis- 
tics is  the  most  important  center  for  statistical  information  on 
prices,  cost  of  living,  wages  and  hours  of  labor,  employment  and 
unemployment,  workmen's  insurance  and  compensation,  industrial 
accident  and  hygiene,  women  in  industry,  conciliation  and  arbitra- 


*See  Catalogue  of  Publications  of  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and 
Domestic  Commerce. 

2  See  Royal  Meeker,  Some  Features  of  the  Statistical  Work  of  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  in  the  Publication  of  the 
American  Statistical  Association,  March,  1915. 


FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED    57 

tion,  labor  laws  of  foreign  countries  and  the  United  States.  The 
price  index  which  this  bureau  has  maintained  since  1907  is 
standard. 

The  bureau  publishes  a  Monthly  Review  including  statistics  on 
the  various  subjects  enumerated;  in  addition,  special  bulletins  on 
these  and  related  subjects  are  periodically  printed.  Some  of  the 
investigations  for  all  these  various  reports  are  purely  statistical, 
others  are  more  general,  using* statistics  only  in  part.  A  study  of 
Housing  by  Employers  in  the  United  States,  recently  published,  for 
example,  summarizes  reasons  why  employers  have  supplied  work- 
men's houses,  and  gives  full  descriptions  of  the  various  types  of 
housing  development,  including  the  site  and  planning  of  towns, 
race  segregation,  public  utilities,  schools,  churches,  playgrounds, 
and  hospitals.  There  are  included  statistical  comparisons  of  the 
types  of  houses  provided,  the  size  of  dwellings,  the  material  of  con- 
struction, the  provision  of  sanitary  systems,  rents,  methods  of 
financing,  proportion  of  labor  force  affected.  Eleven  groups  of 
industries  are  separately  analyzed. 

There  are  about  40  statistical  workers  in  this  bureau,  of 
whom  a  number  are  women.  Two  women,  for  example,  are  in 
charge  of  retail  price  statistics,  each  responsible  for  a  certain  group 
of  commodities ;  one  woman  does  editorial  work  for  the  bureau, 
which  requires  an  understanding  of  statistics.  There  is  a  large 
amount  of  subsidiary  work  as  in  other  departments,  operating  ma- 
chines, drafting,  etc. 

The  Children's  Bureau.  The  Children's  Bureau  was  created 
"to  investigate  and  report  upon  all  matters  pertaining  to  children 
and  child  life  among  all  classes  of  people,"  and  to  study  especially 
such  specific  questions  as  infant  and  maternal  mortality,  juvenile 
courts,  dangerous  occupations,  accidents  and  diseases  of  children, 
and  employment.  This  bureau  prepares  valuable  reports  on  these 
and  other  matters  related  to  child  welfare.  The  statistical  division 
of  about  20  workers  does  not  initiate  investigations  nor  prepare 
reports,  but  advises  with  divisions  which  are  entering  upon  inves- 
tigations as  to  schedules  and  forms,  and  carries  out  all  compilation 
and  charting  of  data.  "Save  the  Youngest,"  a  bulletin  containing 
seven  charts  on  maternal  and  infant  mortality  with  explanatory 
comment,  is  an  interesting  example  of  the  statistical  work  of  this 
bureau. 

Two  women  who  contributed  information  for  this  study  se- 
cured excellent  experience  in  the  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  as 
field  investigators ;  one  has  been  transferred  to  the  position  of  sta- 


58  STATISTICAL  WORK 

tistical  clerk  in  the  Children's  Bureau,  where  she  has  been  prepar- 
ing tables  from  first  tabulations  of  material  from  schedules  on  a 
report  of  infant  mortality,  rearranging  the  material  in  larger 
groups. 

The  Immigration  Bureau.  Eight  clerks  are  regularly  employed 
with  statistics  in  the  Immigration  Bureau  in  Washington.  The 
statistics  of  the  field  offices  are  prepared  by  the  regular  forces 
employed  in  those  offices.  The  statistics  of  this  bureau  cover  im- 
migrant and  nonimmigrant  aliens  admitted  into  the  United  States, 
and  emigrant  and  nonemigrant  aliens  departing  from  the  United 
States  with  data  as  to  nationality,  sex,  age,  occupation,  financial 
condition,  admissions  and  rejections,  and  literacy. 

The  Bureau  of  Women  in  Industry.  This  bureau  gathers  im- 
portant information  in  regard  to  the  conditions  surrounding  women 
workers ;  legal  working  hours  for  women,  minimum  wage  laws  for 
women,  night  work  laws  for  women,  the  status  of  women  as  state 
labor  officials,  women  in  the  Government  service  and  all  related 
matters.  This  information  is  available  in  the  bulletins  and  maps 
published  by  the  bureau.  A  woman  with  training  in  the  Bureau 
of  Labor  Statistics  is  in  charge  of  the  statistical  division,  with  five 
assistants. 

THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  JUSTICE 

In  the  Department  of  Justice  approximately  40  clerks  are 
engaged  in  statistical  work.  They  are  employed  principally  (i) 
in  the  division  of  accounts,  in  which  statistical  information  showing 
the  business  transacted  in  the  courts  of  the  United  States,  bank- 
ruptcy statistics,  and  the  various  reports  required  by  law  pertain- 
ing to  expenditures  under  appropriations  for  the  courts  are  com- 
piled for  use  in  the  annual  report;  (2)  in  the  office  of  the  disburs- 
ing clerk,  where  funds  from  about  forty  appropriations  are  dis- 
bursed, and  (3)  in  the  office  of  the  appointment  clerk,  who  has 
charge  of  all  matters  relating  to  applications,  recommendations,  and 
appointments,  and  compiles  the  Register  of  the  Department  of 
Justice. 

THE  POST  OFFICE  DEPARTMENT 

There  are  16  statistical  clerks  employed  in  the  Post  Office 
Department  in  Washington,  compiling  statistics  of  the  operations 
of  the  postal  service. 


FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED    59 

GOVERNMENT  COMMISSIONS  AND  BOARDS 

In  addition  to  the  major  departments  of  the  Government  there 
are  various  special  boards  and  commissions,  the  progress  of  whose 
work  rests  to  a  great  extent  upon  statistical  reports. 

Interstate  Commerce  Commission.  There  are  approximately 
9  statisticians  and  75  accounting  and  statistical  clerks  employed 
by  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission.  Their  duties  are  "to 
compile  returns  from  reports  submitted  by  steam,  electric,  express 
and  pipe  line,  telephone,  telegraph  and  carriers  by  water ;  prepara- 
tion of  various  accounting  and  statistical  statements ;  checking,  ex- 
amining and  correcting  reports."  These  reports  include  monthly 
statements  of  revenues  and  expenses;  employes,  service  and  com- 
pensation; operating  statistics  by  regions.  Railroad  experience  is 
important  for  the  statistical  work  of  the  commission,  especially  for 
comprehension  of  units  of  measurement  used — freight  train-miles, 
loaded  freight  car-miles,  locomotive  miles,  net  and  gross  ton-miles, 
etc.  An  Abstract  of  Statistics  of  Common  Carriers  is  prepared 
each  year  summarizing  the  reports  of  steam  railway  companies  and 
the  annual  reports  of  the  principal  express  companies  and  of  the 
Pullman  Company.  The  annual  report,  Statistics  of  Railways 
in  the  United  States,  summarizes  mileage,  receiverships,  equip- 
ment, employes,  capitalization  of  railway  property,  traffic  and 
operation  statistics,  income  and  profit  and  loss  statements,  taxes  and 
assessments,  investment  in  road  and  equipment,  and  miscellaneous 
matters  pertaining  to  railways. 

The  United  States  Tariff  Commission.  This  commission  re- 
ports, among  the  activities  of  the  fourth  year  of  its  existence, 
investigations  into  various  subjects,  including  colonial  tariff  pol- 
icies, commercial  treaties,  and  reciprocity  with  Canada.  It  has  con- 
tinued its  study  into  the  wool-growing  industry  throughout  the 
world  and  has  in  progress  a  thorough  investigation  of  special  or 
preferred  transportation  rates  by  railroads  in  the  United  States 
and  in  foreign  countries  and  by  carriers  upon  the  ocean  in  order 
to  determine  what  relation,  if  any,  such  rates  may  have  to  the 
tariff.  Two  reference  books  have  been  prepared  for  Congress, 
Summary  of  Tariff  Information,  1920,  and  Statistics  of  Im- 
ports and  Duties,  1908-1918,  Inclusive.  In  foreign  countries  in- 
vestigations have  been  made  of  the  British  wool-manufacturing  in- 
dustry, silk  production  and  manufacture  in  Europe,  British  metal 
and  chemical  industries,  and  the  industries  of  Japan. 

Tariff  information  surveys  have  been  made  embracing  a  large 
number  of  commodities  under  these  general  divisions;  chemicals, 


60  STATISTICAL  WORK 

oils  and  paints,  earths,  earthenware  and  glassware,  metals,  wood, 
cotton,  sugar  and  molasses,  flax,  hemp  and  jute,  and  wool,  with 
the  manufactures  of  each;  agricultural  products;  silks  and  silk 
goods ;  paper  and  books ;  sundries. 

There  are  approximately  25  statistical  workers  regularly  em- 
ployed by  this  commission  in  addition  to  the  experts  who  are 
employed  in  the  preparation  of  special  studies. 

One  woman  reporting  for  this  study  is  analyzing  cost  accounts 
and  price  data  from  figures  sent  in  by  various  industries.  Another 
is  statistical  clerk  for  a  wool  expert ;  she  receives  all  schedules  (con- 
fidential) sent  out  by  the  commission,  tabulates  the  information 
contained  in  them,  and  finds  the  cost  of  wool  production  for  the 
years  under  consideration. 

Federal  Trade  Commission.  The  principle  laid  down  by  the 
act  creating  the  Federal  Trade  Commission  is:  "Unfair  methods 
of  competition  in  commerce  are  hereby  declared  unlawful."  In 
administering  this  act  the  commission  maintains  two  major  divis- 
ions, the  legal  division  and  the  economic  division.  In  the  latter  a 
large  number  of  trade  and  industrial  inquiries  are  conducted  which 
are  inaugurated  by  the  commission  at  the  direction  of  the  President, 
or  by  direction  of  the  United  States  Senate  or  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives or  both.  More  recently  there  has  been  added  an  export 
trade  division  in  administration  of  the  Export  Trade  Act  of  1918, 
and  during  the  war  an  enemy  trade  division. 

There  are  no  employes  of  the  commission  who  are  rated  as 
statisticians,  but  in  the  economic  division  there  are  22  economists, 
43  accountants,  and  56  clerks,  all  of  whom  do  more  or  less  statis- 
tical work.  Among  recent  reports  of  the  commission  are  cost  re- 
ports on  coal  and  a  report  on  the  causes  of  high  prices  of  farm 
implements. 

The  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education.  There  are  three 
divisions  of  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  the  voca- 
tional education  division  for  the  promotion  of  vocational  education 
in  the  States,  the  rehabilitation  division  for  the  vocational  training 
and  return  to  civil  employment  of  disabled  soldiers,  sailors  and 
marines,  and  the  recently  established  industrial  rehabilitation  divis- 
ion for  the  vocational  training  and  return  to  employment  of  persons 
disabled  in  industry  or  otherwise. 

The  statistical  division  assembles  statistics  for  each  one  of 
these.  For  vocational  education,  statistics  are  compiled  from  state 
reports  in  regard  to  the  types  of  schools  federally  aided,  the  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  such  schools,  the  distribution  of  teachers 


FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED   61 

and  pupils  compared  for  several  years  by  states  and  in  totals,  com- 
parative expenditures,  allotments  to  states  and  unexpended  bal- 
ances. For  the  rehabilitation  division,  individual  records  of  sol- 
diers in  training  are  the  basis  for  statistical  studies  of  enrollment, 
the  general  types  of  training,  training  agencies,  employment  ob- 
jective, educational  background,  progress  of  cases.  For  the  indus- 
trial rehabilitation  division  statistics  will  be  compiled  from  state 
reports. 

SPECIAL  WAR  BOARDS 

During  the  war  a  number  of  special  emergency  boards  came 
into  existence  whose  work  immediately  demanded  the  services  of 
a  large  number  of  statisticians  and  statistical  clerks.  As  examples 
may  be  cited  the  United  States  Shipping  Board,  the  United  States 
Grain  Corporation,  the  War  Industries  Board,  the  United  States 
Sugar  Equalization  Board,  the  War  Finance  Board,  the  Council 
of  National  Defence  and,  established  under  its  direction  and  now 
an  independent  body  under  the  charter  of  the  National  Academy  of 
Sciences,  the  National  Research  Council. 

A  few  illustrations  of  the  many  positions  in  statistical  work  held 
by  women  under  these  special  boards  follow: 

Position  Duties 

Statistician,  Division  of  Responsibility    for    the    monthly 

Planning  and  Statistics,  publication  of  a  printed  report  on 

United  States  Shipping  the  employment  and  control  of  ves- 

Board.  sels  of  500  tons  and  over,  trading 

with  the  United  States. 

Assistant      Statistician,  Preparation   of   weekly,  monthly 

United      States      Sugar  and  quarterly  reports  on  the  sugar 

Equalization   Board.  situation;    special    work    on    sugar 

history  in  other  countries;  graphi- 
cal work. 

Statistician,      United  Preparation  of  statistical  reports 

States    Grain    Corpora-  on   relief  given   to  different   Euro- 

tion.  pean    countries.      Collecting    data, 

summarizing    and    analyzing;    pre- 
paring reports  for  publication. 

STATE  AND  MUNICIPAL  GOVERNMENTS 

Research  workers,  statisticians  and  statistical  clerks  are  em- 
ployed also  in  various  divisions  of  state  and  municipal  governments. 
They  provide  labor  statistics  as  a  basis  for  the  policies  and  decis- 
ions of  industrial  commissions,  arbitration  and  conciliation  boards, 
minimum  wage  commissions ;  vital  and  social  statistics  for  depart- 


62  STATISTICAL  WORK 

ments  of  health  and  departments  of  charities  and  corrections ;  sta- 
tistics for  departments  of  education ;  various  data  for  public  service 
commissions,  departments  of  finance,  banking  and  insurance  de- 
partments, and  departments  of  justice. 

The  following  are  illustrations  of  work  women  are  doing  in 
such  departments  i1 

Position  Duties 

Statistician     in     safety  Classifying  and  codifying  of  ac- 

department    of    a    state  cidents;     preparing     all     statistical 

industrial  commission.  tables    required   by   the    safety   de- 

partment; publication  of  bulletins. 

Senior    statistical   clerk  Copying  pay-roll  records  of  wo- 

rn state  minimum  wage  men  and  minors  in  factories  from 

commission.  pay-rolls.     The  records  of  pay  for 

each  week  are  totaled  and  the 
average  weekly  earning  computed 
according  to  occupations,  establish- 
ments, hours,  age,  experience,  etc. 

Statistician     in     public  Examination    of    data    submitted 

service   commission.  by  public  utility  corporations   and 

making  tables  based  on  this  in- 
formation. 

BUSINESS 

It  is  in  industry  and  commerce  that  the  specific  problems  of 
economics  are  actually  met;  questions  concerning  production 
and  distribution,  demand  and  supply  in  their  varying  relations, 
prices  and  their  fluctuations,  finance  and  credit,  are  both  of  imme- 
diate importance  to  the  business  organization  and  basic  for  eco- 
nomic theory.  Business  research  is  an  effort  to  exercise  direction 
and  control  over  specific  economic  affairs  through  the  use  of  intel- 
ligence. Statistical  records  help  to  eliminate  the  guess  work ;  they 
substitute  facts  for  impressions  or  recollections  which  are  so 
frequently  subject  to  partial  or  faulty  and,  therefore,  misleading 
statement. 

"The  day  of  shrewd  guesses  in  business  is  fast  drawing  to  a 
close.  The  urgent  demand  now  is  for  facts  which  have  been  care- 
fully collected  and  scientifically  analyzed,  and  which  afford  to  the 
new  business  manager  a  solid  basis  for  preparing  his  plan  and 
administering  his  work.  This  means  that  the  old  rule-of -thumb 
methods  must  be  discarded  and  that  an  approach,  at  least,  to  scien- 
tific analysis  must  be  made."  2 


1See  also  page  121. 

2  C.  S.  Duncan,  Commercial  Research,  1919. 


FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED   63 

In  a  recent  discussion  of  statistics  in  business1  there  have  been 
suggested  some  investigations  which  would  be  conducive  to  intelli- 
gent business  control:  a  statistical  comparison  in  detail  of  highly 
profitable  with  markedly  unprofitable  territories  or  articles  or 
methods;  a  statistical  study  of  the  relationships  between  seasonal 
slumps  and  net  profit;  an  inquiry  into  the  relative  frequency  of 
various  characteristics  of  returned  goods  orders,  to  discover  leading 
causes ;  analytical  comparisons  of  records  for  the  location  of  loss, 
wastes  and  inefficiencies;  a  statistical  review  of  credit  losses  to 
locate  clues  for  future  guidance ;  a  statistical  study  of  the  rise  and 
fall  in  prices  of  basic  materials,  and  of  world  and  national  supply 
volumes  as  guidance  for  the  future  course  of  prices.  As  concrete 
factors  worthy  of  examination  in  any  reasoning  concerning  differ- 
ences in  sales  territories,  there  might  be  listed  the  population  per 
square  mile,  the  insurance  in  force  per  capita,  the  population  per 
mile  of  railway,  the  per  capita  consumption  of  various  articles,  the 
per  capita  value  of  realty  and  personal  property,  the  per  capita 
school  expenditure,  the  average  number  of  days  of  duration  of 
school  in  various  localities,  the  number  of  enrolled  pupils,  the  per- 
centage of  literacy,  the  number  of  savings  bank  depositors  per 
thousand  population,  the  average  deposits  for  each  depositor,  the 
number  of  miles  of  improved  roads,  the  marriage,  birth  and  death 
rates.  These  common  facts  interpreted  with  imagination  are 
transformed  into  new  ideas  and  policies  for  business. 

Business  schools  are  recognizing  the  growing  appreciation  of 
statistics  in  business  and  are  offering  courses  in  preparation  for 
their  use,  as  may  be  illustrated  by  one  quotation  from  a  school  cat- 
alogue : 

"For  the  purpose  of  maintaining  intimate  and  constant  contact 
with  all  the  parts  of  an  organization,  and  as  a  means  of  making 
and  testing  business  plans,  progressive  management  must  rely  upon 
masses  of  data  drawn  from  many  sources  and  bearing  upon  a  di- 
versity of  conditions  both  internal  and  external  to  a  business.  The 
usefulness  of  such  data  is  determined  not  only  by  the  degree  of 
accuracy  and  promptness  with  which  they  are  collected,  but  by  the 
intelligibility  of  the  form  in  which  they  are  made  available  for  use 
by  executives.  For  these  reasons,  a  sound  knowledge  of  the  prin- 
ciples, methods  and  devices  of  statistics  and  their  many  useful  ap- 
plications in  business,  is  bound  to  be  a  valuable  and  often  essential 
element  in  the  training  required  for  business.  Moreover,  the  de- 
velopment of  the  statistical  department  in  business  organizations 


J.  George  Frederick,  Business  Research  and  Statistics,  1920. 


64  STATISTICAL  WORK 

and  the  growing  demand  for  expert  statistical  services  are  indica- 
tions that  the  business  statistician  has  gained  the  rank  and  earning 
power  of  a  profession."  * 

Business  is  a  newer  field  for  the  application  of  statistics,  but 
a  developing  one.  Individual  business  firms  which  have  appre- 
ciated the  significance  to  management  of  collective  facts  are  in  in- 
creasing numbers  establishing  a  research  or  statistical  or  data  de- 
partment within  their  own  organization  for  the  analysis  of  internal 
records  and  of  such  outside  factors  as  are  of  concern  in  the  conduct 
of  their  affairs.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  larger  business  or- 
ganizations— railroads,  public  utilities,  large  manufacturing  con- 
cerns and  mercantile  establishments. 

Other  firms  depend  for  research  service  upon  the  trade  associa- 
tions to  which  they  belong ;  for  analysis  of  their  own  records  upon 
accounting  and  advertising  departments  or  firms ;  for  fundamental 
information  in  regard  to  the  trend  of  business  and  business  condi- 
tions, upon  commercial  publications,  statistical  service  organizations 
and  Government  reports.  Schools  of  business  administration  are 
also  beginning  to  offer  research  service. 

"During  the  last  ten  or  fifteen  years  departments  of  research 
have  been  established  in  large  numbers  of  concerns,  and  such  de- 
partments will  soon  be  and  perhaps  already  are,  considered  an  es- 
sential part  of  the  equipment  of  a  big  business.  The  same  cannot 
be  said  of  business  of  small  and  moderate  size.  For  these  groups 
business  research  is  in  its  infancy.  A  beginning  has  been  made  by 
some  of  the  associations  into  which  these  concerns  are  organized, 
but  hardly  more  than  a  beginning.  .  .  .  Co-operation  in  this 
work  is  essential  and  experience  seems  clearly  to  indicate  that  co- 
operation through  trade  organizations  is  best.  .  .  . 

"An  excellent  method  of  securing  this  kind  of  co-operation  was 
discussed  at  a  meeting  of  the  Association  of  Collegiate  Schools  of 
Business.  ...  It  was  the  organization  at  each  one  of  these 
schools,  or  at  least  at  the  best  developed  and  equipped  of  them,  of 
a  Bureau  of  Business  Research ;  the  establishment  of  vital  connec- 
tions between  these  bureaus  and  the  trade  organizations  of  the 
country;  the  division  of  the  field  between  these  bureaus  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  avoid  duplication;  and  the  making  of  the  results  of 
each  available  to  all  and  to  the  co-operating  trade  organizations  and 
the  business  men  of  the  country.  .  .  . 

"At  least  three  such  bureaus  have  already  been  organized  and 
are  in  active  operation,  namely  at  Harvard  University,  Northwest- 


1The  Amos  Tuck  School  of  Administration  and  Finance,  Bulletin, 
J920-1921. 


FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED   65 

ern  University  at  Evanston  and  at  the  University  of  Washington. 
The  University  of  Wisconsin  is  seriously  considering  the  establish- 
ment of  such  a  bureau  in  its  School  of  Commerce."  * 

MANUFACTURING 

Scientific  research  and  manufacturing  have  been  closely  asso- 
ciated ;  there  is,  in  addition,  a  marked  movement  for  industrial  re- 
search with  the  purpose  of  giving  management  in  production  and 
distribution  a  basis  of  more  intelligent  control.2  It  has  been  vari- 
ously estimated  that  production  runs  from  35%  to  85%  of 
what  might  be  the  normal  output;  definite  knowledge  of  all  the 
related  facts  is  essential  to  the  improvement  of  this  rate.  The 
complexity  of  modern  industrial  operations  is  so  great  that  execu- 
tives must  increasingly  expect  masses  of  figures  to  be  presented  in 
summary  form  for  ready  comprehension,  especially  those  repre- 
senting trends  and  comparisons  over  a  period  of  time.  It  is  essential 
that  the  management  should  know  definitely  the  progress  the  busi- 
ness is  making  in  each  department  in  efficiency  of  production  and 
distribution,  how  this  progress  relates  to  that  of  other  industries 
and  why. 

There  are  four  phases  of  industry  which  involve  statistics, 
closely  related  and  often  unified: 

1 i )  Scientific  research,  in  which  data  are  compiled  in  research 
and  control  laboratories  pertaining  to  the  results  of  experiments  by 
engineers  and  scientists  designed  to  control  or  improve  the  quality 
of  the  product  or  the  processes  of  manufacturing  it;  curves  are 
plotted  to  summarize  results. 

(2)  Statistical  study  as  basis  of  policy  of  matters  pertaining 
to  plant  organization  and  administration.     A  form  of  organization 
for  statistical  control  has  been  described,  for  example,  in  which 
"the  chief  statistician  becomes  responsible  for  graphical  and  other 
analyses  of  the  primary  accounts,  for  their  interpretation  in  terms 
of  conditions  revealed  by  the  operating  statistics  and  for  close  co- 
operation with  the  general  auditor  in  respect  to  the  combined  effi- 
ciency of  accounts  and  statistics  both  as  to  the  cost  of  handling 
and  as  to  the  accuracy  and  completeness  with  which  the  facts  relat- 
ing to  the  business  are  set  forth.     In  addition,  the  chief  statistician 


1  Win.  A.  Scott,  Business  Research,  A  Necessity  Born  of  Competi- 
tion, in  Banker-Manufacturer,  February,  1921. 

2  For  a  bibliography  of  industrial  research  see  A  Reading  List  on 
Scientific  and  Industrial  Research  and  the  Service  of  the  Chemist  to 
Industry,    pp.    17-35,    National    Research    Council,    Washington,    1920. 
Printed  also  in  Special  Libraries,  January,   1920. 


66  STATISTICAL  WORK 

will  be  charged  with  the  duty  of  abstracting  and  boiling  down, 
graphically  and  otherwise,  for  ,the  general  use  of  the  executives, 
much  of  the  information  contained  in  the  detailed  reports  made  to 
the  operating  vice-president.  A  further  duty  will  be  that  of  the 
development  of  statistical  methods  and  practices  and  of  checking 
the  operating  statistics  periodically  in  co-operation  with  the  depart- 
mental staffs  to  make  certain  that  all  important  features  of  the 
company's  business  are  adequately  analyzed.  .  .  .  Proper  sta- 
tistical control  involves  the  preparation  of  at  least  a  rough  annual 
financial  budget ;  ...  it  should  be  thoroughly  checked  against 
long  term  trends  indicated  by  the  accounts  and  operating  statistics, 
which  trends  must  be  adjusted  in  turn  to  allow  for  any  ex- 
pected variations  from  normal  business  activity  during  the  year 
involved.  .  .  . 

"A  final  feature  of  statistical  control  is  the  long  term  projection 
of  sales  and  revenues,  expenses,  construction  expenditures  and 
financing.  Such  projections  may  cover  five  or  ten  year  periods  and 
should  be  revised  annually.  If  used  with  discretion  and  with  a 
proper  recognition  of  their  necessary  inaccuracy  beyond  the  first 
two  or  three  years  covered,  they  form  a  valuable  guide  in  connec- 
tion with  the  long  term  financing  and  development  of  any  enter- 
prise." * 

(3)  Investigations  pertaining  to  the  problems  connected  with 
the  employment,   efficiency,   remuneration  and  welfare  of   labor. 
Analyses  of  production  records,  time-keeping  and  pay-roll  records, 
accident  records,  employe  benefit  records,  wages  and  cost  of  living, 
etc.,  are  all  of  increasingly  recognized  importance  in  personnel  ad- 
ministration.    Where  mental  or  trade  tests  are  used,  the  records 
are  analyzed  and  compared. 

(4)  Trade  investigations  in  which  data  are  gathered  concerning 
the  market  of  the  particular  product,  statistical  studies  are  made 
for  judging  the  rate  of  business  increase  and  all  data  regarding 
sales  are  organized  and  analyzed.     "A  certain  manufacturer  in  the 
Middle  West  was  interested  primarily  in  breaking  into  New  York 
markets ;  research  showed  him  that  totally  neglected  at  his  own  door 
there  lay  a  larger  market,  easier  to  get  and  likely  to  prove  more  prof- 
itable than  the  coveted  New  York  market ;  research  showed  another 
manufacturer  that  his  distribution  was  far  from  uniform,  another 
that  he  was  restricting  his  line  to  jobbers  when  the  possible  sale  for 
his  goods  was  almost  confined  to  those  stores  which  aimed  to  buy 

1  M.  C.  Rorty,  Making  Statistics  Talk,  in  Industrial  Management, 
December,   1920. 


FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED   67 

direct,  another  who  sold  direct  that  a  major  portion  of  the  opportu- 
nities in  his  field  could  be  best  reached  through  jobbing  channels."  * 

Some  time  ago  the  ice  cream  manufacturers  of  Chicago  under- 
took a  joint  plan  based  on  an  analytical  study  of  the  capacity  of 
Chicago  to  consume  ice  cream.2 

Industrial  research  is  carried  on  not  only  in  industrial  plants 
but  also  by  contracting  and  consulting  engineers,3  efficiency  experts, 
and  bureaus  for  industrial  research  as  well  as  by  industrial  com- 
missions, arbitration  boards  and  Government  departments. 

"In  the  field  of  production  something  has  already  been  done 
toward  applying  scientific  principles  to  business  activities.  The 
whole  movement  for  scientific  management  has  placed  an  emphasis 
upon  a  careful  and  detailed  analysis  of  each  production  problem." ' 

"Scientific  management,  in  its  broadest  aspect,  is  not  merely 
labor-saving  management;  it  is  not  even  shop  management;  it  is 
industrial  management  by  the  scientific  method.  It  is  not  limited  to 
cost  and  production,  but  extends  to  methods  of  distributing  and 
marketing  the  product,  to  meeting  the  changes  in  character  of  fash- 
ion of  the  product,  to  questions  of  concentration,  of  expansion,  of 
relocation,  of  finance,  etc." ' 

A  woman  who  is  now  working  on  the  statistics  of  number  and 
amount  of  orders,  cost  per  order,  average  payroll  per  order,  etc., 
began  as  mathematician  for  the  purchasing  department  of  an 
industry. 

A  woman  with  experience  in  statistical  work  in  a  government 
department  was  given  the  opportunity  to  develop  a  new  position 
created  by  a  silk  manufacturer  to  make  the  office  function  more 
effectively. 

A  woman  employment  manager  found  a  very  large  part  of  her 
work  to  consist  of  statistical  analyses  of  turnover  made  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  management,  and  considers  that  the  failure  of  her 
predecessor  was  due  to  her  inability  to  prepare  statistical  material. 

Some  additional  records  of  women  engaged  in  statistical  work 
involving  industrial  problems  follow  :6 


1  C.  C.  Parlin,  Why  and  How  a  Manufacturer  Should  Make  Trade 
Investigations,   in   Printers   Ink,   October  22,   1914. 

2  Cameron    McPherson,    Making   a   "Survey"    of   Possible    Demand 
and    Developing   it,   in   Printers    Ink,   May  20,   1915. 

3  For  example  see  Appraisals  and  Rate  Making,  Utility  Regulation 
and  Rate  of  Return,  and  Price  Levels  in  Relation  to  Value,  Sanderson 
&    Porter. 

4  C.  S.  Duncan,  Commercial  Research,  1919. 

5  William  Kent,  Investigating  an  Industry,  1914. 

6  See  also  page  125. 


68 


STATISTICAL  WORK 


Position 

Statistical  research 
worker  with  a  firm  of 
consultants  and  engi- 
neers in  industrial  per- 
sonnel. 

Statistical  clerk  in  ma- 
chine manufacturing  in- 
dustry. 


Research  engineer  and 
supervising  statistician 
in  a  machine  manufac- 
turing industry. 


Assistant  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  safety  en- 
gineer of  an  industry, 
involving  personnel  re- 
lations. 

Assistant  to  the  busi- 
ness director  of  a  news- 
paper. 


Statistical     clerk    in     a 
public    utility    industry. 


Assistant,  to  the  head  of 
the  statistical  depart- 
ment of  the  managers, 
financial  and  operating, 
of  public  utility  proper- 
ties. 


Duties 

Tabulating  mental  test  records; 
assisting  in  wage  studies,  labor 
turnover  studies,  etc. 


Time-keeping  and  pay-roll  work, 
records  of  shop  men,  hospital  rec- 
ords, etc.  Cost-keeping  for  the  en- 
tire establishment. 

Investigating  the  results  of  a 
series  of  experiments  designed  to 
improve  the  quality  of  the  product 
and  working  up  fundamental  phys- 
ical laws  based  upon  these  results. 

Investigation  of  housing,  thrift, 
pensions,  industrial  representation, 
etc.  Recommendations  are  made 
on  a  basis  of  study  of  the  plant 
and  of  customs  in  other  plants. 

General  surveys  of  various  de- 
partments for  improving  the  plan 
of  organization.  Statistical  studies 
and  graphic  representation  of  the 
same. 

Supervision  of  the  statistical 
work  of  the  benefit  fund  depart- 
ment; examination,  editing  and  fil- 
ing of  reports;  compilation  of  sta- 
tistics in  all  phases  of  the  prob- 
lem. 

Analyzing  financial  reports  of 
subsidiary  companies;  making  spe- 
cial statements,  for  firm  or  for 
public,  of  particular  companies  un- 
der the  management;  preparing 
financial  statistics  of  the  firm. 


TRADE 

Like  the  manufacturer,  the  buyer  and  seller  finds  it  essential  to 
study  definitely  the  records  of  his  own  business.  An  analysis  of 
inventory,  of  sales  accounts  and  purchasing  records  furnishes  a 
basis  for  adjustments  between  demand  and  supply.  Of  primary 
importance  to  the  merchant,  however,  in  these  adjustments  are  the 
more  inclusive  commercial  statistics  which  give  him  an  adequate 
understanding  of  his  market.  The  possibilities  in  the  development 


FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED   69 

of  commercial  statistics  and  their  value  in  putting  trade  upon  a  sci- 
entific basis  are  just  beginning  to  be  realized.  Wholesalers  have 
more  fully  recognized  the  value  of  a  superior  knowledge  of  trade 
conditions  and  have  done  much  to  organize  a  system  of  securing 
reliable  market  information.  The  large  retailers — in  department 
store,  chain-store  and  mail-order  house — have  developed  scientific 
records  and  in  some  instances  research  departments.  It  is  the  gen- 
eral retailer  who  has  been  slower  to  recognize  the  value  of  scientific 
business  practice.1 

For  the  department  store  commercial  research  has  shown  such 
facts  as  that  there  is,  outside  of  grocery  jobbing  centers,  a  close 
similarity  between  the  volume  of  grocery  jobbing  business  and  de- 
partment store  business ;  that  43  per  cent  of  the  volume  of  depart- 
ment store  business  is  conducted  by  1,141  stores,  each  with  a  busi- 
ness of  $200,000  and  up ;  47  per  cent  is  conducted  by  172,000  stores 
with  a  business  of  $100,000  and  down;  that  3  is  the  minimum 
number  of  department  stores  that  makes  for  the  most  satisfactory 
business  conditions  in  any  one  community;  that  200  larger  stores 
buy  direct  from  the  manufacturer,  all  others  through  jobbers.  The 
department  store  has  certain  limits  depending  upon  underlying 
laws  which  it  must  find  and  study. 

"Studies  which  we  have  made  during  the  past  nine  years  have 
convinced  us  that  fundamental  economic  laws  determine  opportu- 
nities and  limitations  for  jobbing  and  retailing  in  every  city.  The 
activities  of  merchants  are  by  no  means  an  inconsequential  factor, 
yet  it  seems  clear  that  the  operation  of  laws  beyond  their  control  are 
to  a  considerable  extent  shaping  their  destinies.  .  .  . 

"Types  of  stores  did  not  happen  by  accident — they  evolved  in 
conformity  with  economic  law.  Department  stores,  specialty 
shops,  chain-store  systems,  corner  stores,  each  developed  to  meet 
a  definite  need,  each  has  its  opportunities,  each  its  limitations."  * 

The  chief  of  the  research  department  of  a  mail-order  house 
describes  the  service  of  the  department: 

"A  mail-order  business  draws  a  good  percentage  of  its  money 
from  farmers  and  country  people  and  this  company  has  always 
endeavored  to  keep  in  close  touch  with  agricultural  developments, 
knowing  that  prosperity  of  agriculture  means  the  prosperity  of 
the  business. 

"It  has  been  my  duty  to  bring  before  the  publicity  division  and 
the  merchandise  managers  first  hand  information  in  the  form  of 


*See   C.  S.  Duncan,  Commercial  Research,  1919. 
2  C.  C.  Parlin,  Basic  Facts  of  Prosperity  in  1920. 


70  STATISTICAL  WORK 

reports,  personal  interviews,  investigations,  etc.,  setting  forth  the 
changing  viewpoint,  attitude,  buying  power,  economic  and  financial 
conditions  of  our  customers. 

'This  company  realizes  that  conditions  are  changing  very  rap- 
idly in  farm  life.  Great  progress  is  being  made.  It  is  our  plan  to 
talk  in  the  language  of  the  farmer  customers  and  show  a  sympa- 
thetic understanding  of  their  problems. 

"Our  first  service  has  been  to  render  summarized  reports  cover- 
ing conditions  and  outlook  on  live  stock.  These  reports  have  been 
the  result  of  personal  investigations  and  survey  of  Government  and 
state  crop  reports. 

"In  addition,  we  have  gathered  certain  specific  information  con- 
cerning merchandise,  our  competitors'  values,  sales  methods  of 
small  town  merchants,  the  kind  of  goods  most  used,  the  outlook, 
quality,  etc. 

"We  have  passed  upon  the  agricultural  papers  as  advertising 
mediums  and  made  special  trade  analysis  reports  very  similar  to 
that  compiled  by  advertising  agencies  and  others.  * 

"Of  late  months,  we  have  done  a  great  deal  of  personal  survey 
work  among  our  customers,  in  order  to  draw  conclusions  concern- 
ing the  mail-order  business." 

The  manager  of  a  commercial  research  department  in  a  packing 
house  writes : 

"There  is  a  growing  feeling  among  large  manufacturing  and 
mercantile  concerns,  that  in  order  to  get  complete  and  substantial 
service,  it  is  necessary  for  them  to  have  investigating  and  planning 
departments  of  their  own,  and  that  there  is  a  permanent  place  for 
such  departments.  The  larger  the  concern,  the  greater  the  need  for 
such  a  department.  But  what  is  the  kind  of  information  wanted? 
What  are  the  features  of  sales  organization  and  methods  that  are 
beginning  to  demand  attention?  The  answers  to  these  questions 
indicate  in  general  the  function  of  a  commercial  research  depart- 
ment. 

"The  science  of  commercial  research  has  not  developed  suffi- 
ciently as  yet  to  give  a  very  specific  answer  to  these  questions. 
The  functions  of  such  a  department  depend  largely,  of  course,  on 
the  nature  of  the  business,  and  the  selling  methods  in  use.  In  the 
case  of  a  large  business  with  different  departments  selling  a  variety 
of  articles,  the  functions  of  the  research  department  are  more 
numerous  than  in  the  case  of  a  smaller  concern  selling  a  single 
product.  The  manufacturer  of  advertised  and  branded  articles 


FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED   71 

usually  has  more  need  of  a  research  department  than  the  seller  of 
unbranded  articles. 

"The  fundamental  question  which  a  commercial  research  de- 
partment faces  is  this :  How  can  we  extend  the  market  for  our 
goods  ?  But  in  order  to  answer  this  question,  other  questions  have 
to  be  asked.  Are  we  getting  the  best  results  from  our  present  sell- 
ing activities?  What  are  our  selling  costs?  Is  our  distribution 
even  throughout  the  country?  What  share  of  the  business  are  we 
getting?  Are  the  salesmen  properly  trained?  Are  they  paid  in 
the  best  manner?  How  often  do  they  report  and  what  do  they 
report?  How  well  do  salesmen  cover  their  territories  and  are 
these  territories  laid  out  scientifically?  Could  business  in  certain 
sections  be  developed  by  establishing  branch  houses  carrying  stocks 
of  goods  ?  Then  there  are  other  questions  concerning  sales  policies 
and  price  policies.  .  .  . 

"Perhaps  the  most  important  service  that  a  commercial  research 
department  can  perform  is  the  collection  of  information  that  can 
be  obtained  only  by  field  analyses  or  market  surveys — that  is,  infor- 
mation that  does  not  exist  within  the  organization  in  any  form, 
but  that  has  to  be  gathered  from  the  outside." 

Positions  in  commercial  statistics  and  research  are  as  yet  lim- 
ited, but  there  is  much  promise  of  increased  opportunity  in  the  field 
of  trade,  in  which  the  need  for  scientific  methods  is  just  beginning 
to  be  realized.  As  in  other  business  organizations,  only  the  larger 
wholesalers  and  retailers  tend  to  make  provision  for  their  own  re- 
search ;  the  increasing  research  service  of  trade  associations,  adver- 
tising agencies,  publishing  houses,  and  business  research  bureaus  is 
contributing  much  essential  trade  information. 

There  is  a  growing  appreciation  of  the  need  of  a  Federal  trade 
census.  "The  study  of  domestic  trade  in  the  United  States  is  seri- 
ously hindered  by  the  dearth  of  readily  accessible  information.  To 
facilitate  researches  in  this  field  there  is  a  need  of  a  Federal  census 
of  market  distributors — dealers  in  raw  materials,  commission  mer- 
chants, wholesalers,  and  retailers."  : 

BANKING  AND  FINANCE 

In  even  greater  degree  than  other  business  organizations  banks 
and  investment  houses  depend  in  their  operation  upon  current  in- 
ternal statistics — accounts,  records  of  branch  offices,  records  of 
salesmen,  etc.  They  depend  equally  upon  statistics  of  the  entire 
financial  world  and  commodity  market.  Since  banks  provide  credit 


'Melvin   T.    Copeland,    Business    Statistics,    1917. 


72  STATISTICAL  WORK 

for  the  production  and  transportation  of  commodities,  they  must 
know  definitely  the  immediate  facts  concerning  capital,  credit,  ex- 
changes, prices,  domestic  and  international,  stocks  and  bonds,  the 
relation  of  prices  in  stocks  to  the  prices  of  raw  material,  savings 
statistics.  They  must  have  equally  definite  and  immediate  in- 
formation in  regard  to  the  economic  status  of  basic  industries,  and 
marketing  conditions. 

In  discussing  the  financial  statistician  at  the  first  meeting  of  the 
American  Association  of  Financial  Statisticians  in  1917,  the  presi- 
dent of  the  Association  summarized  the  primary  activities  of  the 
financial  statistician : 

"The  work  of  the  statistician  constitutes  a  profession,  since  it 
is  of  vast  importance  as  a  social  service.  It  demands  specialization 
of  effort  even  to  the  degree  of  affecting  personal  habits.  Its  pri- 
mary function  is  to  analyze  the  demand  for  capital,  and  in  doing 
this  it  requires  of  the  practitioner  besides  a  general  education,  some 
familiarity  with  the  principles  of  economics,  of  statistical  methods, 
of  accounting,  of  engineering  and  of  the  law.  The  statistician  rep- 
resents one  of  the  functions  of  the  bond  house,  that  of  discovering 
the  demands  for  capital  and  of  weighing  the  relative  merits  of  these 
demands."  3 

The  following  statement  as  to  the  use  of  statistics  in  buying 
and  selling  stocks  and  bonds  is  quoted  from  a  business  announce- 
ment of  an  investment  firm : 

"Reliable  financial  information  is  of  the  first  importance  to  the 
investor.  .  .  .  Records  and  figures  in  regard  to  corporations 
and  their  securities  are  available  and  form  an  excellent  guide  for 
those  investors  who  make  commitments  on  evidences  of  intrinsic 
value.  Day  to  day  news  is  apt  to  mislead  those  who  attempt  to 
gauge  the  shorter  movements  on  the  quotation  board.  The  long 
price  savings,  however,  are  governed  by  the  progress  or  decline  of 
individual  corporations  and  of  national  industry. 

"The  expert  statistician  investigates  and  weighs  assets,  earning 
power  and  management.  .  .  .  Our  statistical  department  is  ef- 
ficient. We  invite  you  to  ask  for  its  service  either  in  advising  you 
on  conditions  in  any  industry,  or  for  data  on  individual  stocks  and 
bonds." 

Although  this  is  as  yet  largely  an  untried  field  for  women,  there 
are  various  instances  in  which  women  have  been  employed  as  assist- 


1  Charles  W.  Gerstenberg,  The  Financial  Statistician:  An  address 
delivered  before  the  American  Association  of  Financial  Statisticians, 
May,  1917. 


FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED   73 

ants  in  research  or  statistical  departments  in  banks  and  investment 
houses  and  a  very  few  instances  in  which  women  efficiently  direct 
such  important  departments.  The  investigations  they  undertake 
may  be  used  as  bases  of  policy,  for  the  advice  of  individual  clients 
or  for  general  public  information.  In  any  case  it  must  be  accurate 
and  up  to  the  minute.  One  woman  statistician  in  a  bank  was  re- 
cently called  upon,  for  example,  to  cable  from  New  York  a  judg- 
ment as  to  the  future  of  the  tin  market  to  a  firm  in  Chile.  This 
involved  securing,  interpreting  on  the  basis  of  related  knowledge 
and  summarizing  into  cable  length  the  latest  data  regarding  the 
current  conditions  surrounding  the  tin  market  in  London,  Sing- 
apore and  New  York. 

Another  financial  statistician  writes:  "The  field  of  the  statisti- 
cian in  the  investment  house  is  likely  to  cover  a  wide  range,  em- 
bracing practically  the  entire  field  of  economics  as  a  whole  and 
specializing  particularly  in  such  branches  as  will  bear  directly  on 
the  interests  of  the  firm.  It  is  likely,  also,  to  involve  comparative 
statistics  of  corporations  and  securities,  leading  to  the  preparation 
of  investment  lists  and,  also,  in  aiding  the  firm  to  judge  of  the 
relative  values  of  securities  which  may  be  purchased." 

Many  of  the  large  banks  and  investment  firms  issue  periodical 
bulletins  which  contain  summaries  of  financial  news  and  items  of 
economic  importance  affecting  financial  and  banking  conditions  in 
this  country  and  abroad. 

In  order  to  make  progress  in  statistical  work  in  a  bank  it  is 
necessary  not  only  to  know  statistical  method  but  also  from  practi- 
cal experience  to  learn  to  understand  banking  and  how  the  business 
of  a  bank  is  conducted.  There  is  no  department  which  may  give 
better  opportunity  to  learn  all  the  phases  of  banking  than  the  statis- 
tical department.  It  is  a  custom  in  some  banks  to  train  future 
executives  through  experience  in  this  department.  It  depends 
upon  the  alertness,  observation,  application  and  initiative  of  the 
worker  whether  she  will  continue  in  subsidiary  work  or  develop 
her  experience  upon  so  broad  a  basis  that  her  judgment  becomes 
increasingly  valuable. 

A  woman  working  in  an  investment  house  has  recently  issued 
a  brokers'  hand-book  containing  market  range,  par,  capitalization 
and  dividends  of  securities  on  the  New  York  curb  market.  Fur- 
ther illustrations  of  women's  work  in  financial  organizations 
follow  :a 


1  See  also  page  126. 


74 


STATISTICAL  WORK 


Statistician  in  economic 
research  in  a  bank. 


Statistician  in  the  office 
of  a  broker. 


Financial  statistician  in 
a  bond  house,  under 
the  supervision  of  the 
publicity  department. 


Statistician  in  an  in- 
vestment securities 
house. 


Position  Duties 

Statistical    and    income  In  charge  of  all  income  tax  mat- 

tax  clerk  in  a  bank.  ters,  also  assistant  in  collecting  and 

organizing  statistical  material, 
dealing  with  earnings,  balance 
sheets  and  general  corporate  as- 
sets. 

Analysis  of  the  economic  status 
of  various  basic  industries;  the 
writing  of  comprehensive  reports 
with  graphs. 

Keeping  graphical  data  on  stocks 
of  interest  to  the  employer,  and 
charts  showing  the  relation  of 
prices  in  stocks  to  the  prices  of  the 
raw  commodity. 

Collecting  information  and  com- 
piling statistics  about  various 
stocks  and  bond  issues;  carrying 
the  responsibility  for  the  interpre- 
tation of  statistical  data  and  for 
finished  reports. 

Compiling  records  of  five  hun- 
dred or  more  salesmen  and  of  fifty 
branch  offices  and  managers,  from 
daily,  weekly  and  monthly  reports; 
recording  production  and  cost  of 
operation  with  charts;  working  out 
averages  and  bonus  lists  for  the 
accounting  department. 
INSURANCE 

In  insurance  the  use  of  statistics  has  been  very  highly  devel- 
oped. Vital  statistics,  statistics  of  accidents,  statistics  of  past  ex- 
perience in  insurance,  internal  statistics  of  investments,  cost  of 
operation,  etc.,  are  all  essential  as  basic  material  for  the  actuary  in 
solving  the  problems,  involving  the  combined  effect  of  compound 
interest  and  of  probability,  that  are  concerned  in  calculating  ad- 
equate rates  of  premium  and  of  reserves  for  insurance  companies. 

A  woman  with  wide  experience  in  this  field  has  written :  "In 
general  the  science  of  insurance,  of  whatever  sort,  is  based  upon 
the  law  of  averages.  In  life  insurance  the  mortality  table  is  used  as 
a  basis  for  determining  the  average  death  rate  under  given  circum- 
stances. Fire  and  marine  insurance  depend  upon  the  fact  that 
the  events  insured  against  will,  on  an  average,  produce  certain 
losses  in  definite  periods  of  time.  The  theory  of  casualty  insur- 
ance is  based  upon  the  same  principle.  There  are  very  distinct  dif- 
ferences between  the  methods  of  treatment  to  be  applied  in  differ- 
ent types  of  insurance  because  of  the  diverse  way  in  which  this 


FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED   75 

la>v  of  averages  applies  in  varying  contingencies.  While  the  funda- 
mental principle  in  all  insurance  is  that  of  averages,  yet  in  no  case 
is  that  law  taken  as  final,  but  such  adjustments  must  be  devised  as 
will  insure  a  fair  consideration  of  the  individual." 

Actuarial  work  involves  the  use  of  a  restricted  kind  of  statis- 
tics and  is  primarily  mathematical.  The  Actuarial  Society  of 
America  has  outlined  a  standard  course  of  preparation1  for  this 
work,  which  requires  five  years  to  complete  while  working  in  in- 
surance offices.  This  recommended  preparation  includes  work  in 
statistical  methods  as  applied  in  making  mortality  investigations  and 
in  constructing  and  graduating  mortality  tables. 

Several  large  life  insurance  companies  have  developed  in  re- 
cent years  a  separate  statistical  department  whose  scope  is  more 
broadly  informational  and  provides  a  background  of  authoritative 
information  as  a  basis  for  determining  policy  in  all  insurance  mat- 
ters. Since  whatever  bears  on  human  longevity  is  of  interest  to 
insurance,  investigations  are  made  in  this  department,  of  diseases, 
all  constructive  health  matters,  occupations  as  affecting  health  and 
longevity,  the  influence  of  race  and  place  of  residence  on  the 
length  of  life,  and  the  total  experience  of  insurance  companies  in 
dealing  with  these  matters.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  to  find 
an  insurance  statistician  writing  a  book  on  cancer,  co-operating 
with  public  health  agencies,  and  addressing  medical  societies  as 
well  as  associations  of  experts  in  economics.  The  annual  record 
of  deaths  among  the  insured  of  the  company  is  submitted  to  this 
department  and  a  careful  study  is  made  of  its  indications,  fol- 
lowed by  complete  investigations  of  all  matters  related  to  any  new 
tendencies  discovered  in  this  record.  The  normal  premium  rates 
are  determined  in  the  actuarial  department,  but  companies  in 
which  there  is  a  statistical  department  refer  to  it  all  cases  in  which 
there  arises  the  question  of  subnormal  rates  because  of  occupa- 
tion, race  or  nationality,  or  residence.  In  one  large  company  there 
are  approximately  five  hundred  such  instances  each  year,  in  which 
the  applicant  for  insurance  contemplates  a  journey  or  change  of 
residence,  or  represents  an  unusual  race  or  nationality  or  occupa- 
tion. It  is  only  on  a  basis  of  complete  information,  geographical, 
occupational,  and  ethnographical,  that  recommendations  for  such 
rates  can  be  intelligently  made. 

A  few  records  of  women  working  with  statistics  of  concern 
to  insurance  are  the  following  :2 


1  Actuarial  Society   of  America,   Recommendations   of  the   Educa- 
tional Committee  Published  by  the  Society,  1918. 

2  See  also  page  126. 


76 


STATISTICAL  WORK 


Position 

Statistician    in    a   casu- 
alty insurance  company. 


Statistical  clerk  in  a 
workmen's  compensa- 
tion service  bureau. 


Clerk  in  a   state   insur- 
ance department. 


Duties 

In  charge  of  all  accident  analysis, 
seeking  causes  for  the  chief  acci- 
dents with  a  view  to  preventing 
them;  keeping  watch  for  safety  en- 
gineer on  accident  experience  of 
member  companies;  keeping  statis- 
tics of  the  investments  of  the  com- 
pany; making  statements  of  losses 
for  different  classes  of  casualty  in- 
surance. 

Solving  problems  of  rate-making 
principally  for  workmen's  compen- 
sation insurance;  compiling  the  ex- 
perience of  various  companies  as 
data  for  the  basis  of  rate-making. 

Figuring  ratios  by  means  of  the 
millionaire  machine  and  slide  rule; 
arranging  experience  sheets  of  in- 
surance companies  into  groups  and 
making  tables  of  the  results;  find- 
ing differentials  and  arranging 
tables  for  purposes  of  comparison; 
finding  averages;  tabulating  results 
for  use  in  making  and  approving  of 
rates  used  by  insurance  companies 
for  various  classes  of  workmen's 
compensation  insurance  risks. 


ACCOUNTING 

Accounting  and  auditing  firms  and  accounting  departments 
within  business  organizations,  have  largely  expanded  their  work 
from  bookkeeping  and  finding  errors,  to  a  study  of  the  trend  of 
the  facts  which  their  figures  represent,  and  are  becoming  impor- 
tant organizations  for  business  advice  and  control.  The  accountant 
may  be  a  business  investigator  whose  reports  include  a  survey  of 
the  business  with  recommendations  based  on  an  analysis  and  in- 
terpretation of  the  accounting  records.  These  records  are,  of 
course,  limited  to  internal  business  facts,  but  the  statistical  anal- 
ysis of  accounting  records  brings  out  important  comparisons  such 
as  the  relation  of  sales  to  advertising,  the  relation  of  profits  to 
fluctuations  of  raw  material,  the  relation  of  profit  to  general  busi- 
ness fluctuation.  The  accountant  must  be  able  to  present  such 
material  in  chart  form. 

A  recent  advertisement  of  a  firm  of  certified  accountants  fea- 
tured the  service  offered  by  the  firm  in  the  preparation  of  graphic 
charts  or  the  establishment  of  a  competent  department  of  graphics 
within  a  business  organization.  "Graphic  charts  are  moving  pic- 


FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED   77 

ture  stories  of  business  activity.  They  are  figures  illustrated. 
They  picture  the  vital  facts  of  your  business  as  those  facts  are 
revealed  by  figures — compare  them,  weigh  them,  measure 
them.  .  .  .  The  value  of  your  graphic  charts  depends  on  the 
just  application  of  correct  figures  and  the  use  of  correct  chart 
forms.  Perfect  accounting  must  be  their  base.'' 

The  importance  of  the  accountant's  records  as  statistical  data 
is  evident  from  the  movement  for  standard  systems  of  cost  account- 
ing in  order  that  comparisons  may  be  made  from  a  common  basis. 
The  statistics  for  American  railroad  earnings  and  expenditures 
have  become  far  more  useful  since  the  Interstate  Commerce  Com- 
mission prescribed  standard  accounting  methods.  Several  trade 
associations  have  prepared  uniform  accounting  systems  for  their 
members  so  that  the  data  for  the  particular  trade  may  be  com- 
parable. The  Harvard  Bureau  of  Business  Research  in  its  inves- 
tigations of  a  number  of  retail  and  wholesale  trades,  has  found  it 
necessary  in  each  case,  because  of  variations  in  bookkeeping  meth- 
ods, to  prepare  a  uniform  accounting  system  as  a  means  for  secur- 
ing comparable  figures. 

The  following  excerpts  from  letters  from  certified  public  ac- 
countants illustrate  the  relation  of  statistical  methods  to  accounting : 

"We  would  have  no  place  on  our  staff  for  one  who  is  merely  a 
statistician.  A  knowledge  of  statistical  and  graphic  methods  is, 
however,  a  distinct  advantage  to  an  accountant,  although  there  are 
many  excellent  accountants  who  would  not  pretend  to  qualify  as 
expert  statisticians.  A  cost  accountant  should  be  well  versed  in 
graphic  methods.  Personally,  I  find  them  of  great  use  in  almost 
any  study  of  figures. 

"The  work  of  the  certified  public  accountant  is  fundamentally 
that  of  auditing  and  certifying  to  the  correctness  of  accounting 
statements.  It  is  not  often  that  we  are  called  on  to  go  into  mat- 
ters of  statistical  compilation.  There  is,  however,  a  real  place  in 
business  for  the  statistician  or  statistical  accountant,  and  I  know 
of  many  such  an  employe.  In  most  cases,  however,  in  which  I 
know  of  this  position  it  is  being  filled  by  someone  who  has  come  up 
from  the  inside  and  has  a  pretty  full  knowledge  of  the  method  of 
handling  the  accounts  and  the  details  of  the  business.  Often  this 
work  is  done  by  someone  who  is  called  'Cost  Clerk'  or  'Cost  Ac- 
countant,' but  whose  real  work  is  the  compilation  of  statistics  from 
the  accounts  and  the  presentation  of  those  in  statistical  tables  which 
are  termed  'Cost  Accounts'  (which  they  may  or  which  they  may 
not  actually  be).  Often  a  concern  has  'sales  statistics'  or  'sales 
statements'  prepared  by  a  clerk  with  or  without  title,  who  is,  in  fact, 


78  STATISTICAL  WORK 

a  statistical  accountant.  As  indicated  above,  I  think  in  most  cases 
the  position  has  been  rather  a  growth  and  the  employe  has  come 
through  process  of  natural  selection,  rather  than  through  delib- 
erate intention  to  create  a  job  as  statistical  accountant  and  to  em- 
ploy a  statistical  accountant  to  fill  it. 

"Undoubtedly  there  are  those  who  have  particular  aptitude  for 
statistics  and  can  render  very  valuable  service  in  business  positions, 
but  I  think  in  most  cases  the  primary  requirement  in  business  sta- 
tistics is  that  they  should  be  compiled  by  someone  who  has  had  con- 
siderable experience  in  that  particular  business  line  so  that  he  can 
have  the  ability  properly  to  compile  and  interpret  the  statistics. 
Furthermore,  it  is  quite  essential  that  anyone  taking  up  this  work 
should  understand  the  administrative  organization  and  the  person- 
ality of  the  managers  to  whom  the  statistics  are  to  come  in  order 
that  he  may  furnish  to  them  the  facts  they  are  interested  in  and 
can  give  such  facts  in  a  form  that  they  can  readily  understand  and 
of  which  they  can  make  some  practical  use." 

"Most  of  our  men  at  one  time  or  another  do  statistical  work, 
although  we  do  not  classify  any  of  them  as  statisticians.  Modern 
methods  in  accountancy  make  extensive  use  of  statistics  and  graphs 
in  presentation.  The  practice  is  steadily  increasing.  Some  busi- 
ness organizations  have  accountants  who  devote  their  attention  to 
statistics  and  are  sometimes  called  statistical  accountants." 

"Statistics  have  been  used  in  accounting  for  some  time  and  are 
being  used  more  and  more  every  day  in  direct  proportion  to  the  ex- 
pansion in  size  of  commercial  enterprises.  In  large  business  enter- 
prises the  multitude  of  the  figures  and  facts  which  are  presented  to 
executives  from  time  to  time  are  incapable  of  accurate  understand- 
ing without  the  use  of  well  ordered  tabulations,  graphs  and  charts. 
It  is  in  this  connection  that  accounting  relies  upon  the  principles  of 
statistics.  Insurance,  railroad,  manufacturing  and  mercantile  con- 
cerns have  come  to  rely  very  heavily  upon  statistics  for  a  proper 
interpretation  of  accounting  facts  and  for  the  setting  of  ratios  and 
standards. 

"We  do  not  at  present  employ  any  statisticians,  as  such,  on  our 
staff,  although  the  accountants  employed  thereon  are  expected  to 
be  well  grounded  in  the  principles  of  statistics  for  the  presentation 
of  facts  and  figures  in  financial  reports  and  in  the  devising  of  sys- 
tems, especially  factory  cost  systems." 


FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED   79 

ADVERTISING 

In  the  rapid  evolution  of  the  advertising  business  the  collecting 
and  analyzing  of  basic  facts  have  become  a  recognized  necessity, 
not  only  for  the  purpose  of  intelligent  copy  writing  and  general 
advertising  plan,  but  also  to  meet  the  demands  of  employers  for 
reliable  business  advice.1 

"The  good  advertising  agent  is  a  high  grade  business  adviser ; 
he  offers  the  customers  ideas  and  practical  aid,  born  of  experience, 
together  with  a  real  concern  as  to  the  customer's  success.  Adver- 
tising is  today  but  one  feature  of  the  work  of  a  real  agency."  2 

Sales  record  curves  keep  the  advertising  manager  of  a  business 
informed  as  to  what  he  is  doing.  Research  is  the  safe  method  for 
testing  demand  for  products  advertised  and  for  determining  each 
year  the  amount  of  advertising  appropriation  to  be  made.  The  fol- 
lowing incident  illustrates  concretely  the  relation  of  facts  to  adver- 
tising and  to  market  and  sales  problems : 

"When  someone  recently  informed  the  president  of  a  large  soap 
concern  that  664,000  pounds  of  laundry  soap  had  been  sold  in  the 
State  of  Connecticut  in  one  week  it  set  him  thinking.  Like  other 
executives  he  had  never  stopped  to  analyze  closely  the  statistics 
of  his  own  industry — or,  what  is  more  likely,  had  never  seen  any 
or  made  any  effort  to  compile  them.  He  naturally  asked  whether 
this  amount  was  above  or  below  the  average.  The  next  intensely 
interesting  question  was,  what  proportion  of  the  total  had  his  com- 
pany sold?  When  his  accountants  had  matched  against  the  total 
state  figures  the  firm's  sales  figures,  it  'made  him  sick.'  .  .  . 

"Resentment  against  his  own  poor  showing  in  Connecticut 
made  this  manufacturer  wonder  what  the  normal  per  capita  con- 
sumption of  laundry  soap  was.  Taking  664,000  pounds  of  laundry 
soap  for  Connecticut  and  dividing  it  by  the  population  (1914), 
1,202,000,  he  found  that  the  per  capita  consumption  was  .55  of  a 
pound  per  week' — more  than  10  per  cent  above  the  average  for  the 
United  States. 

"This  incident  so  interested  the  manufacturer  that  he  deter- 
mined to  do  the  difficult  work  of  making  local  analyses  of  the  con- 
sumption of  laundry  soap,  covering  the  entire  country,  state  by 
state,  and  dividing  the  population  by  grades  of  town.  .  .  . 

"As  the  consumer  investigations  progressed,  variations  in- 
numerable in  local  conditions  were  disclosed,  many  vitally  affecting 
the  success  of  an  advertising  campaign  which  would  not  be  brought 

"See  Paul  Terry  Cherington,  The  Advertising  Book,  1916,  Chap.  IX. 
3  Richard   J.    Walsh,   Selling    Forces,    1913. 


8o  STATISTICAL  WORK 

to  the  firm's  attention  ordinarily.  The  differences  in  local  pay- 
days, average  income,  nationality,  predominating,  occupations, 
standard  of  living,  and  many  other  facts  useful  in  determining  the 
fertility  of  a  given  section — all  these  factors  are  charted  on  a  huge 
wall  map  in  the  sales  manager's  office  by  means  of  confidential  sym- 
bols. .  .  .  This  method  gradually  builds  up  a  complete  statis- 
tical analysis  of  the  laundry  soap  industry,  and  brings  the  once  gam- 
bling occupation  of  soap  selling  closer  to  the  ideal  of  the  insurance 
business  where  the  averages,  etc.,  are  accurately  known."  ' 

A  woman  who  is  head  of  the  department  of  statistics  and  inves- 
tigation in  an  important  advertising  agency  has  described  the  vari- 
ety of  facts  upon  which  an  intelligent  advertising  program  is 
planned.  The  character  of  the  product  and  its  rank  among  its 
competitors  must  be  determined.  The  range  and  limitation  of  the 
probable  audience  for  the  advertising  of  any  one  product  as  well  as 
the  content  of  the  copy  is  established  according  to  the  character  of 
the  product.  Soap  which  costs  twenty-five  cents  a  cake  may  be  of 
quite  superior  grade  but  will  not  appeal  to  many  mothers  with  sev- 
eral children  to  keep  clean.  The  audience  to  address  in  advertising 
one  such  soap  was  determined  as  limited  to  the  unmarried  woman 
eighteen  to  thirty-five  years  old.  What  they  read  is  the  next  ques- 
tion, and  what  medium  will  be  most  effective  in  reaching  the  audi- 
ence determined,  periodical  or  poster  or  some  other  form.  All  this 
involves  a  study  of  the  results  of  past  experience  and  the  keeping 
of  various  records. 

The  advertising  agency  must  know  the  business  situation  of 
the  client  as  well  as  the  character  of  his  product  in  planning  the 
kind  of  advertising  contract  which  will  meet  his  needs;  it  must 
study  also  the  effects  of  its  service  upon  his  business.  This  often 
involves  an  analysis  of  accounts. 

A  woman  who  is  manager  of  the  department  of  survey  and 
analysis  in  a  direct  mail  advertising  agency  prepares  some  copy  and 
supervises  some  of  the  printing  as  well  as  carrying  complete  re- 
sponsibility for  gathering  and  analyzing  facts  preparatory  to  an 
intelligent  campaign. 

Statistics  graphically  presented  are  increasingly  used  in  illus- 
trating advertising  copy.  "The  tendency  in  current  technical  ad- 
vertising seems  to  be  toward  the  presentation  of  a  greater  amount 
of  definite  quantitative  information.  Evidence  in  the  form  of  sta- 
tistics is  being  presented  to  back  up  the  claims  of  the  manufacturer. 
An  examination  of  the  advertising  of  recent  months  indicates  that 


*John  Wenzel,  How  to  Study  the  "Per  Capita,"  in  Advertising  and 
Selling,  January,  1915. 


FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED   81 

fully  90  per  cent  of  the  advertisements  carry  some  sort  of  statistical 
information.  To  be  sure,  this  is  often  incidental  but  often,  too,  it 
forms  the  main  appeal.  Sales  figures,  performance  records,  in- 
creases in  production,  the  time  and  labor  that  can  be  saved,  initial 
cost  figures  and  the  ultimate  savings  or  one  of  a  thousand  other 
measurable  facts  can  be  found  in  almost  every  technical  advertise- 
ment. A  very  definite  move  is  apparently  being  made  to  lead  the 
buying  public  to  think  in  quantitative  terms  about  the  technical 
product."  l 

Publishing  companies  with  a  large  clientele  of  advertisers  have 
in  a  few  instances  organized  commercial  research  departments  to 
study  "the  general  trend  of  industrial  conditions,  the  more  specific 
trend  of  a  particular  industry,  and  the  trend  of  an  individual  con- 
cern in  bringing  its  manufacturing  and  selling  methods  into  har- 
mony with  the  evolution  of  its  particular  industry."  Such  depart- 
ments are  not  only  of  essential  value  to  the  advertising  organization 
of  the  publishing  house,  but  offer  their  information  service  freely 
to  all  clients. 

TRADE  ASSOCIATIONS 

In  this  day  of  organization  every  industry  tends  to  seek  its 
kind  in  trade  associations  with  a  resulting  complexity  of  group  ac- 
tivity in  such  associations.  Not  only  are  there  distinct  trade  asso- 
ciations such  as  the  National  Association  of  Cotton  Manufacturers, 
the  Silk  Association  of  America,  the  Writing  P'aper  Manufac- 
turers' Association,  the  American  Bankers'  Association,  the  Na- 
tional Association  of  Credit  Men,  Wholesale  Dry  Goods  Associa- 
tion ;  there  are  also  organizations  of  such  associations  like  the  Na- 
tional Industrial  Conference  Board ;  less  specific  organizations  such 
as  chambers  of  commerce,  city,  state  and  national ;  merchants'  as- 
sociations ;  boards  of  trade ;  and  the  various  trade  unions  and  work- 
ers' organizations.  One  of  the  most  important  functions  a  trade 
association  can  perform  is  to  compile  for  its  constituent  members 
such  data  as  exist  among  them  in  unorganized  form,  with  related 
information  which  is  essential  to  progressive  business  policies  and 
to  an  understanding  of  the  trade  as  a  whole,  but  which  it  would  be 
difficult,  costly  and  impracticable  for  individual  members  other  than 
the  largest  industries  to  secure  for  themselves. 

There  is  a  growing  tendency  to  establish  a  statistical,  research, 
or  information  department  at  the  headquarters  of  a  trade  associa- 

1  A.  H.  Richardson,  Graphic  Methods  in  Technical  Advertising,  in 
Industrial  Management,  April,  1921. 


82  STATISTICAL  WORK 

tion  to  gather  and  dispense  information  important  to  the  trade. 
Many  such  departments  are  already  proving  very  useful;  sugges- 
tions as  to  the  character  of  their  work  follow : 

"This  association  maintains  a  statistical  bureau  which  consists 
of  four  or  five  statisticians,  some  of  them  trained  and  others  junior 
clerks.  The  statistics  compiled  are  mostly  in  regard  to  the  world's 
raw  silk  production,  exports,  imports,  etc.  At  present  we  are  also 
working  on  figures  for  the  manufactured  article." 

"We  maintain  a  research  department.  .  .  .  Our  work  so 
far  has  consisted  largely  in  drawing  up  questionnaires  which  go  to 
members  of  our  association  and  interpreting  the  results.  The  re- 
search work  of  the  association  is  of  comparatively  recent  origin  and 
is  in  the  process  of  development.  We  have  in  the  past  year  ob- 
tained information  and  figures  on  labor  efficiency  and  on  general 
business  conditions,  particularly  on  collections  and  on  sales." 

A  woman  statistician  has  recently  been  charged  with  building 
up  a  research  department  in  an  important  trade  organization.  In 
another  instance  the  statistician  in  a  trade  association  describes  her 
work  as  consisting  primarily  of  collecting  statistics  of  all  kinds 
from  members ;  these  she  analyzes,  summarizes  in  tables  or  graphic 
form  and  returns  the  results  to  the  members.  With  similar  method 
but  quite  different  content  an  assistant  in  the  statistical  department 
of  a  lumber  association  compiles  lumber  statistics  and  gets  out 
daily  and  weekly  reports  to  the  members  of  the  association. 

The  American  Electric  Railway  Association  has  summarized  the 
work  of  its  statistical  department  in  its  monthly  magazine.1 

"The  Statistical  Department  has  on  hand  and  is  constantly  pre- 
paring comprehensive  and  up-to-date  statistics  showing  the  condi- 
tion of  electric  railway  companies  in  every  phase  of  operation. 
This  includes: 

(a)  A  complete  statement  by  months  of  financial  and  operating 
statistics  of  companies,  together  with  an  analysis  and  comparison 
on  various  unit  bases  briefly  summarized  to  show  the  general  situa- 
tion and  tendency. 

(b)  Fares,  rate  increases,  and  applications  for  increased  fares. 

(c)  The  labor  situation,  including  wage  rates,  summary  of  la- 
bor conditions,  analysis  of  labor  contracts,  and  the  prospective  de- 
mands of  employes. 

(d)  An  information  service,  showing  the  latest  developments 
with  respect  to  franchises,  fares,  wages,  municipal  requirements, 
and  practices  and  operating  methods  adopted. 


xAera,  August,   1920. 


FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED   83 

(e)  A  complete  technical  and  engineering  library  equipped  to 
furnish  information  on  the  methods  and  practices  of  companies  as 
to  every  phase  of  construction  and  operation.  A  clipping  service 
from  engineering  periodicals,  as  well  as  questionnaires  collecting 
information  directly  from  companies,  is  maintained." 

The  National  Lumber  Manufacturers'  Association,  made  up  in 
turn  of  the  California  Redwood  Association,  California  White  and 
Sugar  Pine  Manufacturers'  Association,  Georgia  Florida  Saw  Mill 
Association,  Michigan  Hardwood  Manufacturers'  Association, 
North  Carolina  Pine  Association,  Northern  Hemlock  and  Hard- 
wood Manufacturers'  Association,  Northern  Pine  Manufacturers' 
Association,  Southern  Cypress  Manufacturers'  Association,  South- 
ern Pine  Association,  West  Coast  Lumbermen's  Association,  West- 
ern Forestry  and  Conservation  Association,  and  Western  Pine 
Manufacturers'  Association,  describes  its  functions  as  being : 

"To  study  the  forestry  problems  of  the  nation.  To  increase 
efficiency  in  the  manufacture  and  distribution  of  lumber.  To  elim- 
inate waste  in  logging  and  milling.  To  promote  the  proper  utiliza- 
tion of  all  lumber  products.  To  aid  in  developing  by-products  to 
utilize  the  largest  possible  percentage  of  every  piece  of  timber." 

This  Association  publishes  a  monthly  bulletin  of  information 
about  the  lumber  industry  and  provides  a  weekly  statistical  barom- 
eter giving  current  information  about  changes  in  supply  and  de- 
mand and  the  current  production  and  shipments  of  timber. 

The  year-book  of  city  boards  of  trade  may  contain  regularly  a 
current  statistical  summary  of  the  city's  resources,  population,  in- 
dustry and  government. 

The  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the  United  States,  through  its 
Foreign  Commerce  Department,  publishes  quarterly  and  yearly  re- 
ports of  the  world  trade  of  the  United  States,  selected  and  arranged 
so  as  to  make  possible  comparisons  presenting  the  real  national  sig- 
nificance to  individual  industries  of  the  export  and  import  business 
of  the  country.  A  glance  at  the  report  for  1920  reveals,  for  exam- 
ple, that  Cuba  ranked  first  in  that  year  as  a  source  of  supply  for 
our  imports  and  that  from  Mexico,  ranking  ninth,  we  imported 
over  a  hundred  and  eighty  million  dollars'  worth  of  supplies ;  that 
imports  have  made  considerably  greater  gain  than  exports,  reducing 
the  excess  of  exports  over  imports  by  27%.  The  importance 
of  the  exports  of  coal  is  appreciated  when  it  is  realized  that  of  the 
tonnage  of  all  commodities  shown,  coal  and  coke  constitute  57% 
and  rank  third  in  value  among  articles  exported. 


84  STATISTICAL  WORK 

PERIODICALS 

As  has  already  been  stated,  many  banks  publish  periodicals  with 
frequent  statistical  material.  One  woman  who  reported  for  this 
study  is  editor  of  a  bank  journal  for  which  she  compiles  and  edits 
financial  statistics.  Another  makes  special  investigations  in  for- 
eign trade  for  a  similar  journal ;  for  instance,  she  recently  compiled 
complete  information  on  the  production,  manufacture,  consumption 
and  uses  of  Quebracho  wood,  with  statistics  of  imports  into  the 
United  States  over  a  number  of  years. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  there  are  three  thousand  trade  jour- 
nals in  the  United  States.  There  are,  for  instance,  at  least  a  dozen 
trade  journals  dealing  with  the  iron  and  steel  business  and  prob- 
ably as  many  concerned  with  oil.  Practically  every  line  of  goods 
with  more  than  local  importance  has  its  trade  journal.1  While 
some  of  these  periodicals  are  devoted  chiefly  to  current  news  of  the 
trade  many  publish  technical  information  and  considerable  statis- 
tical material.  This  is  in  some  instances  prepared  by  members  of 
the  staff,  in  others  by  trade  associations,  or  by  individual  contrib- 
utors. 

From  a  publishing  house  which  publishes  a  number  of  trade 
journals  comes  the  following  statement: 

"In  our  organization  we  have  statistical  editors,  but  on  many 
of  our  papers  the  work  of  securing  the  statistics  for  our  readers  is 
part  of  the  duty  of  some  member  of  the  editorial  staff  who  is  en- 
gaged on  other  work  as  well.  In  the  same  way  the  clerical  work 
involved  is  taken  care  of  by  clerks  who  have  other  duties  to  per- 
form in  addition  to  this.  Much  of  the  statistical  information  se- 
cured comes  in  the  form  of  answers  to  questionnaires." 

The  following  quotations  are  from  two  leading  trade  journals 
independently  published : 

"The  statistics  which  we  gather  each  month  are  prepared  by 
members  of  our  staff.  Other  statistical  work  on  our  publication  is 
likewise  done  by  our  regular  staff.  Our  experience  leads  us  to  be- 
lieve that  such  work  can  be  more  intelligently  done,  and  more  profit- 
ably for  us,  by  those  who  have  full  knowledge  of  the  bearings  of 
things  in  the  trade  we  represent." 

"We  receive  much  of  our  statistical  matter  already  prepared  in 
the  form  in  which  it  appears  (except  for  necessary  editorial 
changes),  and  such  other  matter  as  we  make  use  of  is  prepared  by 
the  editors  and  editorial  staff,  who  are  familiar  with  the  statistics 


1  For   a    list    of    trade    and    technical    papers    see    Advertising    and 
Selling,  November,   1917. 


FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED   85 

and  statistical  requirements  of  the  industry  through  their  editorial 
training.  In  respect  to  the  last  mentioned,  it  might  be  well  to  call 
to  your  attention  that  there  are  few  thoroughly  trained  editorial 
or  reportorial  workers  on  the  trade  press  (and  likewise  to  a  large 
extent  on  the  daily  press)  who  are  not  required  by  virtue  of  their 
duties  to  have  a  good  working  knowledge  of  the  preparation  and 
handling  of  statistical  matter." 

Commercial  journals  like  Bradstreets,  The  Annalist,  Dun's  Re- 
view, maintain  standard  price  indices  with  other  statistical  "meas- 
ures of  movements"  and  financial  and  commercial  reports  and  com- 
parisons. The  following  statements  from  two  such  journals  are 
suggestive  of  the  kind  of  opportunity  they  offer  in  statistical  work : 

"The  statistical  work  of  the  Journal  is  not  localized  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  render  easy  an  answer  to  the  question,  how  many  per- 
sons are  engaged  in  it.  We  gather  directly  data  of  various  kinds 
from  many  persons  over  a  wide  extent  of  territory,  securing  some 
also  from  other  departments  of  this  company.  The  work  of  as- 
sembling and  interpreting  the  data  gathered  is  mainly  done  by  com- 
paratively few  people,  though  their  labors  are  not  confined  to  that 
work  exclusively. 

"Speaking  generally,  the  statistical  work  we  do  requires  an  ad- 
equate mathematical  equipment  and  experience,  a  knowledge  of  the 
general  facts,  financial,  economic,  industrial,  commercial  or  other, 
relative  to  the  subject  under  investigation,  and,  it  may  be  added, 
particularly  in  the  higher  ranges  of  the  work,  a  certain  acquaintance 
with  statistical  science  and  method." 

"Most  of  the  so-called  statistical  work  is  simply  the  compilation 
into  weekly  records  of  the  daily  stock  market  reports.  In  this 
work  four  persons  are  engaged.  Among  them  they  also  compute 
the  index  of  the  food  cost  of  living.  The  more  strictly  statistical 
work  is  performed  by  one  of  the  members  of  the  staff,  who  con- 
tinues the  business  index  line  from  week  to  week.  This  last  is 
pure  statistical  work  and  requires  an  advanced  knowledge  of  math- 
ematics as  well  as  of  statistical  methods.  In  all,  five  persons  are 
thus  engaged  in  what  you  might  call  statistical  work,  although  in  the 
case  of  only  one  is  the  work  of  a  sort  which  requires  either  a  very 
profound  mathematical  knowledge  or  considerable  familiarity  with 
the  mechanics  of  statistics." 

Financial  journals  like  the  Financial  World  and  the  Wall  Street 
Journal  are  also  to  be  included  in  the  group  of  commercial  period- 
icals. Some  financial  journals  maintain  a  statistical  department, 
one  of  whose  functions  is  to  provide  for  subscribers  information 
and  personal  advice  on  securities. 


86  STATISTICAL  WORK 

A  group  of  journals  which  publish  important  contributed  statis- 
tical material  is  made  up  of  the  professional  statistical  and  economic 
journals ;  the  Quarterly  Publication  of  the  American  Statistical  As- 
sociation, the  Publication  of  the  Royal  Statistical  Society,  The 
American  Economic  Review,  The  Economic  Journal,  The  Journal 
of  Political  Economy,  the  Political  Science  Quarterly,  the  Quarter- 
ly Journal  of  Economics. 

Some  newspapers  maintain  statistical  departments  in  which 
charts  and  statistical  material  are  prepared  covering  their  own  op- 
erations as  a  business.  In  some  cases  such  a  department  keeps  rec- 
ords of  the  advertising  lineage  used  by  various  classes  of  business 
in  all  the  local  newspapers  and  these  papers  are  subscribers  to  the 
service ;  on  the  basis  of  these  facts  a  great  deal  of  promotional  ad- 
vertising is  developed. 

A  magazine  may  offer  occasional  opportunities  to  arrange  ma- 
terial for  graphic  presentation  in  tables,  maps  or  charts ;  this  is 
usually  piece  work  and  cannot  be  counted  upon  definitely  or  reg- 
ularly. 

Reference  has  already  been  made1  to  the  commercial  research 
departments  established  by  some  publishers  of  periodicals  for  the 
advantage  of  their  advertising  departments  and  for  service  to  their 
advertising  clients. 

STATISTICAL  SERVICE  ORGANIZATIONS 

There  have  recently  come  into  existence  statistical  organiza- 
tions, economic  research  bureaus  and  business  research  bureaus 
whose  functions  are  to  analyze  past  and  present  economic  condi- 
tions, to  forecast  the  future  trend  of  business  in  its  various  aspects,2 
and  describe  fundamental  conditions  upon  which  concrete  plans  for 
action  may  be  based.  This  material  is  published  at  regular  inter- 
vals for  the  clients  of  the  organization. 

It  has  long  been  known  in  a  general  way  that  times  of  pros- 
perity and  times  of  depression  in  business  recur  with  more  or  less 
regularity.  But  it  is  only  through  recent  development  of  statis- 
tical and  economic  analysis  that  it  is  possible  to  record  the  fluctua- 
tions in  business  activity  in  such  a  way  as  to  project  movements 
into  the  immediate  future.  Business  forecasts  or  barometers  have 
been  compared  to  the  pressure  gauge  on  steam  engines;  they  are 
of  value  for  control  not  only  to  finance  and  industry,  but  useful 


'See  page  81. 

2  See  Warren  M.  Persons,  Construction  of  a  Business  Barometer 
Based  upon  Annual  Data,  The  American  Economic  Review,  December, 
1916.  Roger  W.  Babson,  Business  Barometers,  1913. 


FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED   87 

also  in  a  large  social  sense  for  the  warning  they  give  of  coming 
periods  of  unemployment. 

A  committee  on  economic  research  which  offers  to  business  men 
its  statistical  service  gives  a  summarized  account  of  its  work  as 
follows : 

"The  most  important  feature  of  the  service  is  our  Index  which 
is  published  regularly  in  our  bi-weekly  Advance  Letter  on  Genera) 
Business  Conditions.  Even  under  the  abnormal  conditions  which 
have  prevailed  since  the  armistice,  this  Index  has  correctly  fore- 
casted wholesale  commodity  price  movements  and  general  business 
activity  and  has  created  widespread  favorable  comment  in  business 
circles. 

"No  forecast  of  general  business  conditions  can  safely  be  made 
without  taking  into  account  the  recent  changes  in  our  economic 
organization.  For  instance,  any  forecast  at  the  present  time  in 
order  to  inspire  confidence  or  even  command  respect  must  allow  for 
the  changes  in  our  banking  system  since  1915,  the  change  from  a 
debtor  to  a  creditor  nation,  the  foreign  trade  situation  of  the 
United  States,  the  destruction  and  shortage  of  materials  as  a  result 
of  the  war,  etc.  Accordingly  we  supplement  the  forecasts  based 
on  our  Index  by  economic  analyses  which  are  published  regularly  in 
the  Monthly  Review.  The  Review  also  includes  our  Index  and 
a  complete  survey  of  general  business  conditions  based  thereon. 
The  more  extensive  studies  are  published  in  supplements  several 
times  a  year." 

A  statistical  organization  of  similar  purpose  prepares  reports 
designed  to  give  in  brief  form  to  merchants,  bankers  and  investors 
carefully  collected  and  condensed  facts  about  business  and  finance. 
These  reports  are  divided  into  eight  features — a  weekly  barometer 
letter;  a  semi-monthly  speculative  bulletin,  a  monthly  desk  sheet 
indicating  the  fundamental  condition  of  American  business ;  a  semi- 
monthly investment  bulletin ;  a  semi-monthly  mercantile  bulletin  and 
map  (advice  to  sellers)  ;  a  semi-monthly  commodity  bulletin  (ad- 
vice to  buyers);  a  semi-monthly  foreign  trade  bulletin;  a  semi- 
monthly labor  bulletin. 

The  bureaus  of  business  research  established  by  schools  of 
business  administration  have  already  been  referred  to1  with  their 
possibilities  of  extensive  co-operation  with  trade  associations  and 
business  men.  The  catalogue  statement  concerning  one  of  these 
bureaus  may  be  quoted : 

"The  need  of  more  facts  regarding  every-day  business  methods 
and  problems  was  apparent  as  soon  as  the  graduate  school  of  busi- 

1  See  page  64. 


88 


STATISTICAL  WORK 


ness  administration  was  established.  There  were  several  fields, 
such  as  marketing  for  example,  to  which  little  scientific  attention 
had  been  given.  Only  scanty  information  was  available  regarding 
the  methods  by  which  many  types  of  business  were  managed. 

"The  fields  of  study  were  so  large  that  organized  research 
seemed  essential.  Consequently,  in  1911  the  bureau  of  business 
research  was  established.  The  primary  purpose  of  this  bureau  is 
to  gather  information  regarding  typical  every-day  business  methods 
and  problems  as  an  aid  to  instruction  in  the  school.  The  results 
of  the  investigations  of  the  bureau  are  made  available  not  only  to 
the  students  of  the  school  but  also  to  the  business  men  who  assist 
in  this  work  by  furnishing  reports  on  their  own  business.  A  large 
number  of  merchants  and  manufacturers  have  made  immediate 
practical  use  of  the  bulletins  issued  by  the  bureau." 

In  statistical  organizations  and  in  bureaus  for  economic  or  busi- 
ness research  women  are  found  rendering  good  service  and  gaining 
valuable  experience  in  statistical  work ;  a  few  illustrative  positions 
are  these  r1 


Position 

Assistant     to     head     of 
labor  department. 

Assistant  head  of  com- 
puting department. 


Head  of  computing  de- 
partment. 

Research    worker. 


Associate  director. 


Duties 

Advisory  work  based  on  statis- 
tical data. 

Collecting  data  and  applying  the 
necessary  mathematical  operations 
for  statistical  study;  preliminary 
drafting  in  the  study  and  forecast 
of  business  conditions. 

Receiving  all  orders  for  com- 
puting jobs  and  planning  and  veri- 
fying the  work. 

Analyzing  and  interpreting  data, 
preparing  tables,  supervising  the 
printing  of  reports  on  industrial 
matters. 

Organizing  investigations  and 
carrying  them  through  to  comple- 
tion; or  outlining  surveys,  prepar- 
ing schedules,  inaugurating  field 
work  and  assembling  data,  apprais- 
ing material  and  preparing  reports 
for  print.  Developing  equable 
wage  bases,  giving  counsel  on 
industrial  and  social  problems. 
Technical  reports  on  economic  and 
sociological  subjects,  or  popular 
reports  on  such  subjects,  or  reports 
combining  both  methods. 


xSee  also  page  127. 


FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED   89 

EDUCATION 

It  is  only  in  the  last  twenty  years  that  experimental  and  statis- 
tical methods  have  been  applied  in  matters  of  education;  during 
these  years,  however,  practically  every  phase  of  school  ad- 
ministration and  pedagogy  has  been  attacked  with  quantitative 
methods  of  inquiry.  Scientific  study  of  such  matters  as  the  dis- 
tribution of  pupils  in  the  various  grades  according  to  relative  ages, 
their  rates  of  progress  through  the  grades,  the  methods  of  rating 
pupils'  achievement  and  elimination  from  school,  has  made  for  new 
principles  of  school  administration. 

Psychologists  are  making  fundamental  contributions  to  educa- 
tion in  statistical  analyses  of  learning  processes,  the  influence  of 
training  in  one  field  on  capacity  in  another  field,  the  problems  of 
mental  inheritance,  mental  work  and  mental  fatigue,  and  in  pro- 
ducing scales  and  methods  for  the  measurement  of  ability  and  of 
the  rate,  amount  and  permanence  of  improvement. 

Psychologists  and  school  administrators  are  both  attacking  the 
problem  of  the  curriculum.  What  are  the  minimum  essentials? 
What  is  the  best  organization  of  subject  matter?  Are  individual 
text-books  constructed  in  accordance  with  the  principles  governing 
learning  processes?  These  are  some  of  the  questions  which  are 
being  quantitatively  analyzed.1 

Much  of  this  educational  and  psychological  research  is  done  in 
university  departments  of  education,  where  there  is  a  limited  op- 
portunity for  employment  as  statistical  assistant  to  the  department 
members  conducting  research. 

State  and  city  boards  of  education  maintain  statistical  divisions, 
as  well  as  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  and  the  Federal 
Board  for  Vocational  Education,  whose  work  has  already  been 
noted.2  These  departments  compile  and  in  some  cases  analyze  for 
the  administration  school  data  such  as  census  and  attendance  rec- 
ords, promotions,  retardations,  school  mortality,  health  reports, 
tests  of  efficiency,  school  finances,  reports  of  vocational  work  under 
federal  co-operation. 

There  are  also  educational  associations,  national,  state  and  local, 
and  private  foundations  and  organizations  devoted  to  the  advance- 
ment of  education  which  conduct  important  educational  and  psy- 
chological research.  The  number  of  bureaus  for  educational  ex- 
perimentation is  growing ;  statistical  departments  are  inevitably  in- 
cluded in  such  bureaus. 

^or  a  complete  discussion  of  this  matter,  with  full  bibliography, 
see  Harold  O.  Rugg,  Statistical  Methods  Applied  to  Education,  1917. 
'See  pages  48,  60. 


90  STATISTICAL  WORK 

A  limited  number  of  schools  employ  trained  psychologists  to 
apply  tests  of  intelligence  and  ability.  All  psychologists  entrusted 
with  such  responsibility  should  have  adequate  training  in  statistics 
for  the  scientific  analysis  of  the  results  obtained  from  mental 
measurements.1 

There  is  a  slowly  increasing  opportunity  for  teaching  statistics 
and  for  statistical  research  in  college  departments  of  economics, 
sociology,  mathematics  and  education,  and  in  schools  of  business 
and  schools  of  social  work.  Occasionally  there  is  an  opening  for 
laboratory  supervision  in  connection  with  such  a  course ;  the  indi- 
vidual problems  undertaken  by  students,  with  the  statistical  meth- 
ods involved,  come  under  the  immediate  direction  of  such  a 
supervisor. 

Of  the  twelve  women  in  educational  work  who  reported  for 
this  study  one  is  statistician  in  the  division  of  educational  measure- 
ments in  a  state  department  of  education,  four  are  teaching  statis- 
tics, one  is  assistant  in  a  laboratory,  five  are  engaged  in  educational 
research  in  organizations  devoted  to  that  purpose,  one  is  compiling 
statistics  in  a  city  school  system.  The  following  are  outlines  of 
several  such  positions.2 

Position  Duties 

Head  of  department  of  Giving    class    instruction    in    sta- 

social     research     in     a  tistical    methods,    including    super- 

school   of   social   work.  vision  of  practical  work;  planning 

and  supervising  research  work. 

Teacher  of  economics.  Giving  an  advanced  course  in  sta- 

tistics in  the  department  of  eco- 
nomics of  a  college. 

Statistical    clerk    in    a  Getting  statistics  on  expenditures 

board  of  education.  of    the    city    for    educational    pur- 

poses; coding  pay-rolls,  punching 
information  on  cards,  tabulating 
and  assorting. 

Research    worker    in    a  Tabulating   results   of   tests    and 

foundation    with    a    de-  in    some    cases    scoring    or    estab- 

partment   of   education.  lishing    methods    for    scoring    new 

tests:  finding  averages,  medians, 
modes,  co-efficients  of  correlation 
and  plotting  curves. 

Supervisor  of  statistical  Making  graphs  and  charts  from 

work    and    filing    in    a  given  data, 

foundation  interested  in 
education. 


1  See    Edward   L.   Thorndike,    An    Introduction    to   the   Theory   of 
Mental  and  Social  Measurements,  1904. 

2  See  also  page  128. 


FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED   91 

SOCIAL  WORK 

"Disinterested  examination  of  contemporary  social  facts  is 
rare.  Only  in  recent  years  has  the  study  of  social  conditions  begun 
to  be  scientific  instead  of  sentimental.  The  very  complexity  of 
causation  which  lies  back  of  social  problems  has  often  discouraged 
painstaking  analysis  and  defied  systematic  investigation.  Prejudice 
and  superstition  still  hamper  and  frequently  prevent  an  impartial 
examination  of  things  as  they  are."  : 

The  more  efficient  organizations  for  social  work  are,  however, 
recognizing  the  necessity  for  a  scientific  study  of  social  facts  both 
in  planning  their  program  of  work  and  in  measuring  the  progress 
made.  Only  the  larger  social  agencies  such  as  the  American  Red 
Cross,  the  National  Association  for  the  Study  and  Prevention  of 
Tuberculosis,  the  National  Committee  for  Mental  Hygiene  (in  each 
of  which  a  woman  is  in  charge  of  statistics),  foundations  for  re- 
search and  public  boards  of  health  and  departments  of  charities 
and  correction,  which  have  previously  been  included,2  regularly  em- 
ploy statisticians  and  maintain  statistical  departments.  In  other 
social  agencies  special  statistical  workers  are  temporarily  employed 
for  special  investigations;  or  the  statistical  work  consists  only  of 
compilations  of  records  made  by  the  registrar  or  the  person  in 
charge  of  records. 

The  possibilities  of  the  coordination  of  social  agencies  for  sta- 
tistics is  illustrated  by  the  plan  of  the  Central  Statistical  Bureau 
of  the  Baltimore  Alliance.  "In  January,  1920,  the  Baltimore  Alli- 
ance, a  federation  of  fourteen  social  or  charitable  agencies  in  the 
city  of  Baltimore,  organized  a  new  department  of  potentially  far- 
reaching  importance.  It  is  known  as  the  Central  Statistical  Bu- 
reau, and  forms  an  integral  part  of  the  Alliance.  The  functions 
of  this  bureau  are  (i)  to  supervise,  standardize,  and  control  the 
permanent  statistical  records  collected  by  each  of  the  allied 
agencies;  (2)  to  serve  as  the  final  repository  of  all  case  and  statis- 
tical records;  (3)  on  the  basis  of  the  critically  controlled  basic  sta- 
tistical records  to  carry  on  scientific  investigations  of  those  broad 
social  problems  toward  the  ultimate  permanent  solution  of  which 
the  activities  of  the  Alliance  are  directed."  s  A  woman  is  chief 
statistician  of  this  bureau. 


1  F.  Stuart  Chapin,  Field  Work  and  Social  Research,  1920. 

2  See  pages  44,  61. 

3  School  of  Hygiene  and  Public  Health,  Johns  Hopkins  University, 
Catalogue  and  Announcement,   1921-22. 


92  STATISTICAL  WORK 

It  is  considered  essential  for  every  social  worker  to  have  a 
knowledge  of  elementary  statistics  and  to  be  able  to  use  statistical 
methods  in  the  preparation  of  reports;  a  course  in  statistics  is  a 
fundamental  part  of  a  social  worker's  training.  While  it  is  fre- 
quently true  that  a  social  worker  develops  into  a  statistician,  it  sel- 
dom happens  that  a  statistician  without  social  work  training  or  ex- 
perience is  employed  in  this  field.  As  elsewhere  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  the  field  of  work  is  necessary. 

As  to  opportunities  in  this  field,  Miss  Sophonisba  P.  Brecken- 
ridge  of  the  University  of  Chicago  has  written :  "Most  of  our  grad- 
uates in  social  investigation  find  employment  in  the  Government  de- 
partments, which,  of  course,  they  enter  by  civil  service.  They 
have  been  especially  happy,  I  think,  in  the  Children's  Bureau  and 
in  the  Bureau  of  Labor ;  but  some  have  gone  into  inspectional  work 
and  one  or  two  have  organized  new  forms  of  service,  such  as  Miss 
Anne  Davis  in  the  Chicago  Vocational  Bureau,  and  Miss  Letitia 
Frye  in  the  Visiting  Teacher  work.  My  impression  is  that  oppor- 
tunities of  this  kind  are  increasing  and  that  it  is  becoming  increas- 
ingly necessary  for  social  case  workers  to  understand  the  use  of 
statistical  methods  in  the  handling  of  their  records  and  in  making 
special  studies  on  which  plans  for  advances  in  their  work  would  be 
based.  The  trouble  is,  however,  that  such  demand  as  does  exist 
is  very  irregular  and  intermittent,  and  we  therefore  require  of  all 
of  our  students  a  certain  amount  of  practice  work  with  a  social 
case-work  agency,  so  that  the  student  may  not  be  wholly  dependent 
for  employment  upon  the  other  field." 

The  following  are  examples  of  women's  statistical  work  for 
social  agencies:1 

Position  Duties 

Editorial  worker  in  the  Editing  of  statistical  reports  sent 

statistical  department  in  in    from    the    field    to    give    them 

a  foundation  interested  printable   form   and    order.      Clear, 

in  advancing  preventive  logical    statement    of    the    material 

medicine.  given  in  the  statistical  reports  with- 

out comment  by  the  editor. 

Research    secretary    in  Statistical      research,      including 

an  anti-tuberculosis  or-  preparation  of  all  schedules,  ques- 

ganization.  tionnaires,  etc.,   for  surveys,  study 

of  economic  costs,  etc. 

Statistician    for    a    so-  Analyzing,    tabulating    and    pre- 

ciety    of    four    hundred  senting  and  interpreting  in  a  report 

or    more    organizations  material  on  workers'  budgets  with 

(temporary).  a    view    to    establishing    a    salary 

schedule. 


*See  also  page  128. 


FIELDS  IN  WHICH  STATISTICAL  WORKERS  ARE  EMPLOYED   93 


Position  Duties 

Statistical    worker    for  Gathering  data  and  making  tables 

an  organization   of  day  and  interpreting  results  of  a  study 

nurseries    (temporary).  of     mothers     who     were     nursery 

clients. 

Statistician    in    an    eco-  Issuing  a  technical  magazine;  do- 

nomic  department  of  a  ing  the  statistical  work  for  a  series 

religious     and     philan-  of     cafeterias;     making     statistical 

thropic   organization.  studies  of  branch  organizations. 

Investigator  and  statis-  In  charge  of  all  statistical  work, 

tician    in    a    social    re-  planning   methods    of    compilation, 

search  organization.  table  forms,  etc.    Planning  forms  to 

be  used  for  gathering  statistics, 
planning  of  tables  to  be  used.  Re- 
sponsible for  statistical  material 
in  reports  published. 


PART  V 

Preparation  for  Statistical  Work 

JUDGMENT,  imagination,  a  wide  knowledge  of  the  field  of 
work  and  a  comprehensive  knowledge  of  statistics,  with  expert- 
ness  in  statistical  method,  have  been  designated  as  characteristics 
of  the  statistician.  Judgment  and  imagination  depend  upon  native 
ability  and  broad  general  education  and  interest.  A  knowledge  of 
the  field  in  which  the  statistician  works  implies  also  a  general  edu- 
cation with  academic  or  apprenticeship  training  or  both  in  such  spe- 
cial field.  The  science  and  method  of  statistics  may  be  learned 
through  specific  courses  in  statistics  and  practical  experience  in 
their  application. 

GENERAL  EDUCATION 

What  shall  be  included  in  the  general  education  of  a  student 
who  looks  forward  to  statistical  work  cannot  be  too  closely  out- 
lined. A  college  course  is  taken  for  granted  except  for  the  sub- 
sidiary clerical  positions.  It  is  possible,  however,  as  has  been 
proven  in  notable  instances,  with  intelligence  and  devotion,  to  begin 
in  a  clerical  position  with  less  preparation,  make  up  the  lack 
through  a  longer  apprenticeship  and  gain  from  experience  such  a 
comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  field  as  will  give  background  for 
responsible  work. 

Statisticians,  while  insisting  that  little  mathematics  is  actually 
used  in  statistical  work,  with  few  exceptions  emphasize  mathemat- 
ics, preferably  through  calculus,  with  certainly  an  understanding 
of  logarithms,  and  if  possible  accounting,  as  an  essential  element  in 
the  general  education  preparatory  to  statistical  work,  for  the  type 
of  thinking  involved  and  for  the  basic  conceptions  gained  for  sta- 
tistical methods. 

Since  statistics  is  fundamentally  concerned  with  social  phenom- 
ena, work  in  economics,  sociology  and  history  is  of  the  first  impor- 
tance in  the  general  preparation  for  statistics.  At  least  one  foreign 
language  should  be  acquired,  Spanish,  French  or  German,  prefer- 
ably more  than  one.  Training  in  English  composition  is  valuable 
for  report  writing  and  may  make  all  the  difference  between  clerical 
and  responsible  work. 

94 


PREPARATION  FOR  STATISTICAL  WORK  95 

COURSES  IN  STATISTICS 

GENERAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASPECTS 

Training  in  statistics  is  an  important  contribution  to  general 
education  as  well  as  preparation  for  statistical  work.  "(Statistical 
method)  is  indeed  a  body  of  doctrine  pre-eminently  adapted  as 
preparation  and  support  of  a  general  scientific  education.  It  is 
closely  united  to  the  first  bases  of  human  perception  and  logical 
thought,  and,  unlike  theoretical  logic,  does  not  develop  from  these 
ideas  an  apparently  abstract  and  abstruse  system  of  syllogisms,  but 
shows  directly  and  clearly  how  these  logical  connections  are  turned 
to  account  in  problems  of  economic  and  political  life,  of  a  thor- 
oughly practical  and  indispensable  character.  In  every  new  ex- 
planation it  shows  in  a  new  form  how  the  slightest  error  of  an 
idea  or  smallest  logical  mistake  can  render  large  undertakings  use- 
less, and  in  their  consequences  misleading  and  even  dangerous  for 
the  judgment  of  important  facts  of  political  and  social  existence. 

"The  theory  of  statistics  shows  also  the  value  and  application 
of  logic,  and  must  heighten  the  interest  in  critical  thought.  It  leads 
to  a  comprehension  of  the  earnest  and  firm  purpose  of  statistical 
endeavor,  to  a  consciousness  that  requires  strict  truth  and  love  of 
the  truth,  that  the  proper  treatment  of  the  conclusions  or  data, 
which  will  not  permit  or  excuse  any  self-deception,  involves  a  seri- 
ous responsibility,  that  may  properly  be  designated  as  a  demand 
of  the  public  conscience. 

"For  the  youth  of  all  professions,  particularly  those  of  official 
position,  the  theory  of  statistics  is  a  very  appropriate  field  of  study. 
When  its  way  is  opened  more  and  more  among  students  we  may 
expect  a  reaction  upon  political  bodies,  the  press,  public  opinion, 
and  general  culture.  We  shall  then  become  accustomed  to  a  more 
critical  treatment  of  statistical  questions ;  ambiguities  of  conception, 
of  interpretation,  and  proposals  will  decrease;  statistics  will  be 
more  exactly  applied  in  their  true  fields,  and,  with  proofs  of  their 
value,  the  general  estimate  of  them  will  be  higher."  ] 

VOCATIONAL  ASPECTS 

Expertness  in  statistical  methods  has  been  acquired  in 
various  instances  by  experience  alone,  but  can  be  more 
economically  gained  by  beginning  with  well-planned  courses  in 
statistics.  These  courses  would  also  give  some  comprehension  of 


1  August  Meitzen,  History,  Theory  and  Technique  of  Statistics, 
translated  by  Roland  P.  Falkner;  American  Academy  of  Political  and 
Social  Science,  1891. 


96  STATISTICAL  WORK 

statistics  as  a  science,  which  is  valuable  at  the  start  for  both  the 
future  statistician  and  the  user  of  statistics  as  incidental  to  other 
interests.  Such  courses  would  include : 

(a)  An  introduction  to  statistical  literature — to  the  statistics 
which  are  current  and  the  social  facts  which  they  indicate. 

(b)  The  practical  uses  made  of  statistics,  official,  social  and 
industrial. 

(c)  Bases  for  judging  the  validity  and  usefulness  of  statistics. 

(d)  An  introduction  to  the  theory  underlying  statistical  meth- 
ods, with  practice  in  the  processes  of  statistical  computation  and 
presentation. 

(e)  Exercise  in  initiating  and  carrying  through  to  conclusion, 
under  supervision,  problems  in  the  fields  of  each  student's  chief  in- 
terest, such  as  economics,  sociology,  psychology,  education,  biology 
— in  co-operation  with  the  departments  concerned. 

A  laboratory  equipped  with  the  computing  machines  in  general 
use  and  providing  for  the  actual  gathering  of  statistical  data  with 
tabulation,  preparation  pf  graphs  and  diagrams,  report  writing  and 
general  practice  is  an  important  asset  to  any  general  course  in 
statistics. 

Courses  in  statistical  graph  and  chart  making  or  mechanical 
drawing  are  available  for  those  who  choose  to  specialize  in  these 
aspects  of  statistical  work.  In  some  instances  public  high  schools 
provide  instruction  in  statistical  computing  and  drafting. 

COLLEGE  COURSES  IN  STATISTICS 

Work  in  statistics  is  elected  by  students  either  ( i )  because  of 
interest  in  statistics  as  such,  in  the  quantitative  analysis  of  prob- 
lems, in  research,  or  (2)  because  of  interest  in  economics,  sociol- 
ogy, psychology,  education  or  science  and  recognition  of  the  impor- 
tance of  statistics  and  of  accurate  methods  pf  thinking  in  the  par- 
ticular field.  For  the  first  group  a  general  course  in  statistics  with 
a  choice  among  a  variety  of  actual  problems  to  work  upon  is  most 
satisfactory;  such  a  general  course  also  meets  the  needs  of  the 
second  group,  while  courses  in  statistics  in  the  departments  of  in- 
terest, with  practical  work  concentrated  upon  the  material  of  the 
department,  may  be  equally  advantageous.  For  the  arts  and  science 
college  it  is  usually  impracticable  to  offer  courses  in  statistics  in  all 
departments  which  they  concern;  the  summary  on  page  136  indi- 
cates the  variety  of  procedure  found  expedient  in  those  colleges 
which  include  statistics  in  the  undergraduate  curriculum.  The  stu- 


PREPARATION  FOR  STATISTICAL  WORK  97 

dent  who  chooses  a  course  in  statistics  should  recognize  the  possi- 
bilities and  limitations  of  the  course  as  offered  by  different  depart- 
ments. 

Department  of  Economics.  It  is  in  the  field  of  economics  that 
statistical  methods  have  been  most  generally  applied,  and  therefore 
it  is  easy  to  understand  that  departments  of  economics  have  in  the 
largest  number  of  instances  been  the  first  to  introduce  courses 
in  statistics;  such  courses,  as  reported  in  college  catalogues, 
usually  center  upon  a  study  of  the  elementary  principles  of  statis- 
tics and  the  application  of  statistical  methods  to  economic  or  social 
and  economic  phenomena.  "A  study  of  the  application  of  statis- 
tical methods  to  social  and  economic  data.  Laboratory  work  illus- 
trates the  methods  studied  and  gives  practice  in  the  use  of  comput- 
ing machines."  : 

Courses  in  statistics  in  departments  of  economics  are  likely  to 
be  broader  in  subject  matter  than  those  given  in  any  other  depart- 
ment, with  the  possible  exception  of  the  department  of  math- 
ematics. 

Department  of  Sociology.  Courses  offered  by  departments  of 
sociology  may  be  general  and  planned  to  "impart  a  knowledge  of 
the  methods  and  devices  used  in  statistical  work  which  are  author- 
itative and  applicable  in  all  departments  of  scientific  investigation" 
as  at  the  University  of  North  D'akota.  They  are  more  likely  to  be 
"social  investigation ;  methods  of  collecting,  organizing  and  inter- 
preting social  data"  as  at  the  University  of  Denver,  or  "studies  in 
immigration  and  social  welfare  based  on  the  census  and  labor  re- 
ports of  the  United  States"  as  at  Mills  College. 

Department  of  Education.  A  course  in  statistics  offered  by  the 
department  of  education  even  where  it  is  the  only  course  in  statis- 
tics given  in  the  college,  is  usually  a  specialized  course,  dealing  with 
the  application  of  psychological  and  statistical  methods  to  concrete 
school  problems.  Still  more  specialized,  it  deals  with  the  partic- 
ular problem  of  measuring  mental  ability  and  educational  achieve- 
ment, and  includes  only  a  brief  survey  of  elementary  statistical 
methods  essential  to  interpreting  the  results  of  mental  tests. 

In  occasional  instances  the  department  of  education  offers  first 
a  general  course  in  statistical  methods  as  a  prerequisite  for  a  course 
in  mental  measurements. 

Department  of  Psychology.  Courses  in  departments  of  psy- 
chology treat  of  statistical  methods  as  applied  in  experimental  psy- 


*Mt.    Holyoke   College    Catalogue,    1920-1921. 


98  STATISTICAL  WORK 

chology,  in  mental  measurement,  in  tests  of  intelligence,  character 
and  vocational  aptitudes.  One  such  course  is  described  as  "a 
demonstration  and  working  course  in  statistical  methods;  theory 
discussed  in  connection  with  practice;  the  determination  and 
evaluation  of  measures  of  central  tendency,  dispersion,  precision, 
reliability,  differences  between  means  and  between  distributions; 
seriation  and  plotting,  curve-fitting ;  correlation.  Students  provide 
Davenport's  'Statistical  Methods'  and  a  polyphase  slide-rule;  cal- 
culating machines  and  mathematical  tables  available.  Some  knowl- 
edge of  algebra  a  prerequisite."  : 

Department  of  Mathematics.  A  department  of  mathematics 
can  give  courses  in  statistics  without  prejudice  as  to  their  applica- 
tion, and  would  therefore  seem  to  be  the  logical  department  in 
which  a  general  course  in  statistics  should  be  offered.  The  danger 
lies  in  overemphasis  of  mathematical  formula ;  such  f ormulce  are 
necessary  for  the  statistician  but  in  themselves  may  become  stultify- 
ing to  the  more  essential  requirement  of  imagination.  Depart- 
ments of  mathematics  which  offer  such  courses  may  co-operate  for 
the  laboratory  work  of  the  students  with  various  other  departments. 
"The  object  of  this  course  is  to  acquaint  the  student  with  the  prin- 
ciples and  methods  of  statistical  work.  Methods  of  collecting,  crit- 
icizing and  arranging  data,  the  use  of  graphs,  histograms  and  picto- 
grams  in  presenting  statistical  relations,  and  the  general  manipula- 
tion of  such  material  are  first  studied.  The  theoretical  treatment  is 
supplemented  by  applied  statistics,  examples  being  selected  from 
the  widest  range  possible.  A  study  of  errors,  probabilities,  and 
kindred  topics  completes  the  year.  This  course  is  essentially  a 
practical  one  and  meets  the  needs  of  the  economist,  sociologist,  biol- 
ogist, insurance  worker,  or  the  investigator  in  any  field  requiring 
the  collection  and  study  of  statistical  data."  : 

"Elements  of  statistical  methods;  theory  and  use  of  the  slide- 
rule.  This  course  is  designed  for  students  majoring  in  Com- 
merce, Economics,  Education,  Journalism,  Architecture,  Mathe- 
matics and  the  natural  sciences,  who  have  occasion  to  compile  and 
interpret  statistics.  The  theory  and  use  of  the  slide-rule  is  in- 
cluded for  its  practical  use  in  shortening  the  work  of  computation. 
The  treatment  is  largely  non-mathematical,  but  students  will  be  ben- 
efited by  taking  a  course  in  advanced  algebra  beforehand." ' 


1  Leland    Stanford    Junior   University,    Announcement    of    Courses, 
1921-1922. 

2  Connecticut   College    Catalogue,    1920-1921. 
'University  of  Oregon  Catalogue,   1919-1920. 


PREPARATION  FOR  STATISTICAL  WORK  99 

At  Wellesley,  two  courses  are  offered  in  the  department  of 
mathematics.  One  is  primarily  for  theory  and  for  those  students 
who  wish  to  use  critically  the  statistics  of  others ;  the  other  is  pri- 
marily for  problem  work  and  is  planned  for  those  students  who 
wish  to  follow  a  study  of  the  theory  with  practice  in  collecting  and 
arranging  statistical  material. 

COURSES  IN  STATISTICS  IN  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 

Schools  of  Social  Work.  Recognizing  increasingly  the  need  of 
basing  social  theory  on  scientific  social  investigation,  schools  of  so- 
cial work  include  in  their  curricula  such  courses  as  social  statistics, 
vital  statistics,  methods  of  social  inquiry,  statistical  methods. 

"Social  Statistics. — A  course  designed  to  give  practical  training 
in  the  collection  and  interpretation  of  statistical  material  relating  to 
social  problems,  vital  statistics,  statistics  of  pauperism,  crime,  the 
defective  classes,  immigration  and  unemployment.  Methods  of 
presenting  and  interpreting  the  material  in  the  case  records  and  files 
of  social  organizations  will  be  dealt  with."  ] 

The  courses  offered  in  undergraduate  and  graduate  schools  of 
social  work  are  listed  on  page  144. 

Schools  of  Public  Health.  Schools  of  public  health  require 
their  students  to  become  familiar  with  vital  statistics. 

"Vital  Statistics. — A  course  in  vital,  social  and  sanitary  statis- 
tics arranged  especially  for  students  who  intend  to  enter  the  public 
health  service.  It  will  treat  of  the  principles  of  statistics,  popula- 
tion, registration,  births  and  marriages,  general  death  rates,  specific 
death  rates,  morbidity,  causes  of  death,  preparation  of  tables,  plot- 
ting, construction  of  diagrams,  graphical  display  of  data,  and,  in 
general,  the  application  of  statistics  to  state  and  municipal  prob- 
lems." 2 

At  Johns  Hopkins  University  the  work  of  the  department  of 
Biometry  and  Vital  Statistics  is  intended  "to  meet  the  needs  of  two 
classes  of  students  (a)  those  training  for  work  in  public  health; 
(b)  those  intending  to  specialize  in  statistical  work  either  as  teach- 
ers, investigators,  or  administrators."  This  department  offers 
courses  in  advanced  statistical  theory,  the  statistical  measurement 
of  the  effectiveness  of  public  health  activities,  investigations  in  bi- 
ometry and  vital  statistics  with  special  opportunities  for  advanced 


1  University   of   Chicago,  The   Graduate    School   of   Social   Service 
Administration,   Bulletin,   1920. 

2  School  of  Public  Health,  Harvard  University  and  the  Massachu- 
setts Institute  of  Technology,  Bulletin,  1920-1921. 


ioo  STATISTICAL  WORK 

students  to  investigate  "the  genetic  and  environmental  factors  con- 
cerned in  the  etiology  and  epidemiology  of  tuberculosis"  or  "the 
statistical  aspects  of  the  problems  of  clinical  medicine,  surgery  and 
pathology,"  or  the  broad  social  problems  with  which  the  Baltimore 
Alliance  is  concerned. 

The  various  courses  in  statistics  offered  by  schools  of  public 
health  are  indicated  on  page  145. 

Business  Schools.  Courses  in  statistics  are  included  in  the  cur- 
ricula of  many  business  schools,  schools  of  commerce  and  in  under- 
graduate and  graduate  departments  of  business  administration. 
They  are  planned  for  major  work  in  statistics  in  some  instances  and 
also  advised  for  students  in  such  various  fields  as  accounting,  ad- 
vertising, marketing,  transportation  and  public  utilities,  insurance, 
real  estate  and  journalism.  The  character  of  general  courses  of- 
fered in  business  schools  may  be  suggested  by  quoting  a  description 
of  one  of  them: 

"The  object  of  the  course  is  to  study  the  application  of  statis- 
tical methods  and  theories  to  the  finding,  analysis  and  presentation 
of  the  facts  which  should  be  known  about  a  business  in  order  to  set 
standards,  to  prevent  waste,  to  determine  policy  and  to  guide  future 
planning.  The  elementary  principles  of  theory  and  method  which 
underlie  the  gathering,  classification  and  interpretation  of  collective 
facts  are  considered.  Practical  application  of  statistical  theory  is 
made  with  reference  to  the  locating  and  testing  of  markets ;  com- 
pilation and  analysis  of  sales  records ;  effectiveness  and  results  of 
advertising ;  production  facts ;  factory  costs ;  purchasing  factors.  A 
brief  treatment  of  the  theory  of  business  cycles,  the  making  of  in- 
dex numbers  and  business  barometrics  conclude  the  course.  Sta- 
tistical investigations  of  concrete  business  problems  are  made  by 
students  under  direction  of  the  instructor."  ] 

On  page  141  are  listed  schools  of  business  which  offer  courses 
in  statistics. 

Schools  of  Education.  Various  courses  in  educational  psychol- 
ogy and  educational  administration  include  the  elements  of  statis- 
tical method.  A  number  of  schools  of  education  offer  also  more 
complete  courses  in  statistics.  For  responsible  statistical  work  in 
the  field  of  education,  graduate  courses  in  education  and  psychology 
and  training  in  statistics  are  fundamental. 

"Application  of  psychological  and  statistical  methods  to  educa- 
tion. .  .  .  This  course  aims  to  prepare  advanced  students  to  in- 


1  Boston  University,  College  of  Business,  Catalogue,  1921. 


PREPARATION  FOR  STATisxijCAL/WioRji  ;,'/',     ;  ict 

vestigate  such  problems  in  education  as  involve  accurate  treatment  of 
mental  characteristics,  and  to  provide  future  principals  and  superin- 
tendents of  schools  with  the  technical  knowledge  of  statistics  which 
will  enable  them  to  use  conveniently  and  profitably  the  data  avail- 
able in  any  school  system."  ] 

Graduate  schools  of  education  with  courses  in  statistics  are 
listed  on  page  146. 

Technical  Schools.  Schools  of  engineering  offer  courses  in 
graphics,  statistical  mechanics,  the  statistical  treatment  of  observa- 
tions, the  theories  of  average  and  probability.  Some  schools  of 
agriculture  include  courses  of  statistics  in  their  curricula  to  famil- 
iarize their  students  with  the  use  of  statistics  or  to  instruct  them  in 
the  application  of  statistical  methods  to  the  scientific  problems  of 
agriculture. 

"Statistical  methods  in  theoretical  physics. — A  course  of  lec- 
tures dealing  with  general  aspects  and  particular  applications  of  the 
use  in  physics  of  statistical  methods,  which,  beginning  with  the 
kinetic  theory  of  gases,  have  gradually  extended  over  a  wide  range 
of  phenomena,  especially  those  connected  with  the  second  law  of 
thermodynamics."  2 

"Agricultural  statistics. — A  study  of  the  principles  involved  in 
the  collection,  tabulation  and  interpretation  of  agricultural  statistics. 
This  course  is  designed  for  students  who  expect  to  do  research 
work."  '' 

"Analysis  of  Statistics. — The  special  purpose  of  this  course  is 
to  acquaint  students  of  agriculture  who  may  have  occasion  to  make 
use  of  statistical  tables  of  various  sorts,  with  the  modern  mathemat- 
ical methods  of  treatment.  Use  is  made  of  farm  bulletins,  agri- 
cultural reports,  etc.,  by  means  of  lectures,  readings  and  recita- 
tions." 4 

APPRENTICESHIP  TRAINING 

In  some  instances  large  organizations  arrange  definite  training 
for  employes  of  the  statistical  department  with  material  drawn 
from  the  experience  of  the  organization  as  a  basis  for  instruction 
in  graphic  methods,  in  the  theory  of  error  and  similar  fundamental 
phases  of  statistical  work. 


'Teachers    College,    Columbia   University,    Bulletin,    1920-1921. 
2  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,   Bulletin,   1921. 
8  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture,  Cornell  University,  An- 
nouncement, 1920-1921. 

4  Kansas   State   Agricultural    College,    Announcement,    1920-1921. 


xo:2  '"STATISTICAL  WORK. 

GRADUATE  WORK 

For  students  who  elect  their  first  statistical  courses  after  choos- 
ing a  field  of  work  and  entering  upon  graduate  study,  any  well 
planned  general  course  in  statistics  is  an  adequate  introduction.  It 
will  ordinarily  be  advantageous,  however,  for  the  graduate  student 
to  secure  training  in  statistics  in  the  department  of  major  work. 
Advanced  work  in  statistics  is  usually  offered  aside  from  graduate 
schools  and  departments  of  social  work,  public  health,  business  ad- 
ministration and  education,  in  graduate  departments  of  economics, 
sociology,  psychology  or  mathematics  and  deals  with  research  in 
economics  and  social  statistics,  business  or  industrial  statistics  with 
statistical  theory,  the  theory  of  errors,  the  method  of  least  squares, 
or  with  special  statistical  problems  such  as  biometry  or  graphics. 
Schools  offering  work  in  statistics  for  graduate  students  are  indi- 
cated in  the  lists  on  pages  137-140. 

ADVICE  AS  TO  TRAINING 

Some  general  comments  on  training  made  by  statistical  workers 
may  be  noted: 

"The  best  preparation  is  a  broad  general  education  specializing 
in  what  will  give  the  ability  to  see  without  being  shown,  the  power 
of  discrimination,  and  the  ability  to  concentrate." 

"Of  greatest  assistance  is  the  mental  grip  and  adaptability  that 
come  from  any  line  of  study  rightly  pursued." 

"My  whole  college  training  contributed  to  the  broader  point  of 
view  which  has  made  my  present  work  possible." 

"A  great  help  has  been  foreign  residence  and  travel  and  contact 
with  people." 

"An  accounting  knowledge  has  been  essential." 

"In  the  statistical  work,  of  course,  higher  mathematics  was  val- 
uable, especially  the  use  of  logarithms." 

"Cataloguing  has  been  valuable,  which  has  taught  me  to  arrange 
material  in  the  best  possible  way." 

"I  have  studied  many  reports,  statistically  accurate,  which  failed 
entirely  because  the  statistician  was  not  grounded  in  the  subject 
matter  of  the  investigation." 

"Courses  in  statistics  are  not  much  use  without  a  professional 
background  of  thinking  and  fact  in  the  given  field.  .  .  .  Form- 
ulae are  subordinate,  the  method  of  thinking  is  essential." 

"An  elementary  knowledge  of  accounting.  Any  training  which 
will  develop  broad,  open-minded  thinking.  (This  is  perhaps  the 


PREPARATION  FOR  STATISTICAL  WORK  103 

most  essential.)  Collateral  reading  on  all  kinds  of  business  and 
financial  subjects." 

One  financial  statistician  suggests  that  courses  in  business  statis- 
tics are  far  more  valuable  to  a  person  who  has  already  had  some 
experience  in  business  than  they  are  to  a  beginner.  She  recom- 
mends that  a  girl  use  them  as  extension  courses  in  connection  with 
her  position,  if  she  can  manage  to  do  so.  She  considers  an  all 
round  college  course  a  necessity,  with  special  stress  on  economics 
and  mathematics. 

The  chief  statistician  in  a  state  industrial  commission  writes : 
"My  view,  based  on  considerable  practical  experience  here,  is  that 
anyone  who  proposes  to  take  up  statistical  work  as  a  permanent 
occupation  should  have  at  least  a  college  education  by  way  of  gen- 
eral training  and  such  special  training  as  would  be  covered  by  un- 
dergraduate courses  in  economics  and  statistics.  .  .  .  Persons 
so  equipped  would  be  prepared  to  develop  by  practical  experience 
in  statistical  work  capacity  which  would  open  the  way  for  consid- 
erable advancement.  Those  who  hope,  however,  to  make  a  real 
profession  of  such  work  and  to  rise  to  important  positions  are  far 
more  likely  to  develop  capacity  which  would  bring  them  advance- 
ment of  that  sort  if  they  could  have  graduate  training  in  economics, 
sociology  and  statistics." 

A  statistician  in  a  large  sales  agency  advises:  "The  best 
college  training  for  a  person  desiring  to  do  statistical  work  would 
be  the  usual  course  in  mathematics  and  then  a  good  course  in 
economics  and  statistics  with  mechanical  drawing  and  charting. 
In  the  field  of  commercial  research  it  is  essential  that  the  person 
in  charge  of  a  statistical  department  be  an  economist,  in  order  to 
know  what  facts  and  figures  to  collect  and  how  to  interpret  them 
after  they  are  collected  and  tabulated." 

The  following  letter  from  Dr.  Secrist  of  Northwestern  Univer- 
sity School  of  Commerce  suggests  various  considerations  in  regard 
to  training: 

"The  type  of  training  which  young  women  should  have 
in  order  to  prepare  them  for  responsible  positions  as  statis- 
ticians seems  to  me  to  involve  two  major  considerations. 
First,  fundamental  training  in  statistics  and  statistical  methods 
in  order  to  observe  accurately  and  to  infer  logically.  The 
subject  content  of  statistics  hinges  about  observation  and  jn- 
ference.  I  think  anyone  who  is  responsible  for  collecting 
statistical  facts  and  interpreting  them  should  be  trained  not 
only  in  statistical  methods,  but  in  the  elements  of  logic  and 
the  fundamentals  of  economics.  If  the  person  is  to  work  in 
the  business  field,  obviously,  training  in  business  economics  is 
also  necessary. 


104  STATISTICAL  WORK 

"There  are  comparatively  few  institutions  where  satisfac- 
tory training  may  be  secured  in  statistical  methods,  due 
primarily  to  the  restricted  field  covered  and  to  the  almost 
total  absence  of  laboratory  facilities.  But  the  technique  of 
statistical  application  can  hardly  be  satisfactorily  acquired 
where  the  point  of  view  in  the  assignment  of  statistical  prob- 
lems is  of  the  'make  work'  type.  Wherever  data  on  concrete 
and  live  problems  can  be  secured,  even  though  they  apply  only 
to  a  restricted  field,  an  attempt  should  be  made  to  secure  facts 
and  present  them  in  a  definite  and  forceful  way.  The  purposes 
for  which  an  investigation  or  a  problem  is  undertaken  should 
unmistakably  accompany  the  observations  which  are  made 
and  the  inferences  which  are  drawn.  To  meet  this  standard 
in  college  laboratories  is  very  difficult  outside  of  a  few  institu- 
tions where  there  is  close  contact  between  the  laboratory  and 
business,  economic  and  social  conditions. 

"Every  student  should  be  required  to  prepare  a  statement 
of  the  purpose  for  which  statistical  facts  are  collected,  to  map 
out  the  sources  of  information  and  to  construct  the  schedules, 
as  well  as  tabulate  the  data  and  make  the  appropriate  infer- 
ences from  them.  In  reality,  this  course  of  duties  is  closely 
associated  with  the  results  of  logic  and,  of  course,  pre-sup- 
poses  a  full  and  complete  knowledge  not  only  of  statistical 
technique,  but  also  of  the  problems  with  which  the  data  are 
associated. 

"It  is  essential  that  students  should  have  practical  experi- 
ence in  field  work  and  in  making  personal  contacts.  After  all, 
the  routine  of  schedule  drafting,  tabulation  and  presentation 
can  be  delegated.  The  responsibility,  however,  for  undertak- 
ing statistical  inquiries  so  as  to  guarantee  against  loss  of  time 
and  money  and  to  insure  success  can  hardly  be  delegated. 

"These  are  a  few  of  the  conditions  which  seem  to  me  to  be 
important  in  the  training  and  experience  of  men  as  well  as 
women  who  are  to  be  placed  in  positions  of  responsibility. 
The  capacity  for  forecasting,  looking  ahead  and  anticipating 
difficulties  and  in  planning  statistical  work  is  so  vital  that  the 
training  which  is  given  should  bear  unmistakably  upon  them." 

CONCLUSIONS 

For  all  statistical  work,  as  much  general  education  as  possible 
is  advisable;  this  cannot  be  overemphasized.  For  professional 
work  a- college  course  including  if  possible  mathematics,  economics, 
sociology,  history,  statistics,  foreign  languages  and  English,  is 
taken  for  granted  as  preparatory  education. 

For  subsidiary  positions  a  special  skill  is  sufficient  technique — 
stenography,  drafting,  computing ;  these  may  be  acquired  in  special 
short  courses.  For  progress  to  professional  work,  a  thorough 
comprehension  of  statistics  is  essential.  This  may  be  acquired 
through  experience  alone  under  intelligent  supervision,  especially 
if  apprenticeship  training  is  provided.  Well  planned  courses  in 
statistics  give  training  which  makes  it  possible  to  gain  at  once  a 
more  comprehensive  knowledge  of  statistics  and  training  in  meth- 


PREPARATION  FOR  STATISTICAL  WORK  105 

ods,  and  therefore  to  advance  more  quickly  to  responsible  work. 
Such  courses  may  well  be  elected  in  college  both  for  general  edu- 
cational value  and  vocational  preparation. 

For  application  in  specialized  fields,  courses  in  statistics  may 
be  pursued  as  part  of  the  vocational  preparation  offered  by  schools 
for  social  work,  schools  of  business,  education,  agriculture,  engi- 
neering, in  extension  departments,  or  in  graduate  departments  of 
economics,  sociology,  psychology,  education  or  mathematics.  Ad- 
vanced work  in  statistics  may  be  elected  in  such  graduate  depart- 
ments. 

Experience,  with  the  concrete  knowledge  of  the  field  of  work 
it  brings,  is  an  essential  element  of  preparation. 


PART  VI. 

Other  Vocational  Considerations 

OPPORTUNITY  FOR  WOMEN  IN  STATISTICAL 

WORK 

THE  demand  for  the  scientific  use  of  facts  in  determining 
practical  policies  is  increasing,  as  has  been  indicated.     For 
the  person  interested  in  statistics  as  a  vocation  there  is  every  rea- 
son to  expect  an  expanding  future  opportunity. 

Women  have  been  pre-eminently  in  demand  for  the  subordi- 
nate positions  in  statistical  work :  "At  lower  grade  jobs  a  woman 
is  far  better  than  a  man  and  will  do  the  work  far  better  and  more 
carefully  than  a  man,"  is  typical  of  employers'  comments.  The 
positions  of  largest  responsibility  and  salary  are  still  chiefly  held 
by  men.  Where  women  have  advanced  it  has  in  most  instances 
been  to  positions  of  supervision  rather  than  direction.  The  rea- 
sons for  this  are  not  inherent  in  the  character  of  the  work,  which 
in  itself,  with  the  possible  exception  of  some  kinds  of  investiga- 
tion, involves  no  limitations  on  the  basis  of  sex.  The  reasons  are 
rather  found  in: 

(1)  The  failure  of  women  to  understand  the  professional  as- 
pects of  this  work,  so  that  employers  have  concluded,  "Women  do 
not  look  to  the  future — do  not  make  good  executives — too  tem- 
porary— will  not  work  for  women — do  not  want  executive  jobs  or 
work  that  is  likely  to  change  materially  from  time  to  time — like 
routine  work,   something  steady  where  they  know  what   is   re- 
quired of  them  and  can  tackle  it  regularly  and  systematically." 

(2)  The  prevailing  acceptance  in  government  and  business  of 
the  leadership  of  men,  which  results  in  the  assumption  by  men  of 
the  responsibility  for  making  progress  and  taking  command  and 
regarding  women  as  assistants,  and  in  the  reluctance  on  the  part 
of  women  to  take  the  necessary  initiative  in  preparation  and  in 
increasingly  responsible  work.     It  is  therefore  true  that  women 
must  still  have  more  easily  discernible  qualifications  than  men,  who 
are  more  readily  accepted  on  trust. 

106 


OTHER  VOCATIONAL  CONSIDERATIONS  107 

(3)  The  instability  of  women  workers  because  marriage  has 
so  frequently  interrupted  vocational  progress.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  women  hold  individual  positions  for  a  shorter  time  than 
men  remain  in  similar  positions;  the  difference  is  more  probably 
in  attitude  toward  the  work — temporary  rather  than  professional, 
with  less  achievement  as  the  result. 

There  are,  on  the  other  hand,  conspicuous  instances  of  women 
who  have  attained  recognized  professional  rank  in  statistics  and 
it  is  fair  to  the  whole  situation  to  say  that  the  field  of  statistics  is 
equally  open  to  both  men  and  women  and  that  the  work  of  women 
who  have  shown  ability  to  carry  responsibility  in  this  field  is  rec- 
ognized and  rewarded. 

It  should  not  be  assumed  that  the  subordinate  positions  may 
not  afford  satisfactions  or  inherent  opportunity.  An  operator  of 
statistical  machines  can  describe  her  work  as  "interesting  and  edu- 
cational." A  statistician  in  a  sales  agency  describes  his  assistant : 
"She  combines  to  an  unusual  degree  speed  and  accuracy  in  han- 
dling figures.  In  other  words,  she  is  a  splendid  detail  worker  and 
at  the  same  time  has  initiative  and  uses  her  head  in  detecting  er- 
rors, avoiding  mistakes,  etc.  For  a  person  of  this  type  there  is 
certainly  a  fine  field  in  statistical  work,  for  they  are  hard  to  find." 
A  woman  with  a  number  of  years  of  experience  in  strictly  clerical 
statistical  work  testifies,  "Personally,  statistical  work  has  been  very 
fascinating  and  agreeable.  It  requires  plenty  of  good  solid  plug- 
ging but  the  result,  if  successful,  brings  with  it  a  great  feeling  of 
satisfaction.  For  one  who  is  not  afraid  of  hard  work  and  is  fond 
of  figures  I  think  statistical  work  is  a  good  vocation." 

It  is  for  the  woman  with  the  ability  and  preparation  for  more 
responsible  service  and  for  whom  her  work  has  become  routine 
that  it  is  a  mistake  to  settle  into  subordinate  work.  A  woman 
who  has  found  the  chances  for  responsible  work  "all  that  you  will 
assume  and  show  yourself  fit  to  shoulder,"  admits  that  often  "one 
is  tempted  to  follow  just  routine  work." 

Characteristic  comments  of  women  in  this  field  as  to  the  op- 
portunity it  offers  are : 

"About  the  same  as  for  men  except  that  women  are  perhaps 
more  inclined  to  stick  at  the  lower  levels  where  the  work  becomes 
a  routine." 

"Primarily  a  masculine  field;  women  viewed  with  suspicion. 
But  real  work  receives  recognition." 

"It  seems  to  me  that  added  responsibility  and  better  positions 
are  usually  forthcoming  to  those  willing  to  take  a  real  interest  in 
their  work  and  devote  themselves  to  it  wholeheartedly." 


io8  STATISTICAL  WORK  . 

"The  limitations  lie  in  women  not  in  the  job.  Because  they 
are  so  unstable  and  generally  seeking  a  job  for  but  a  few  years, 
men  hesitate  to  put  them  in  positions  of  trust  and  responsibility, 
and  statistical  work  means  both." 

Several  comments  from  men  statisticians  may  be  added;  they 
represent  the  open-minded  attitude  which  has  been  generally  met 
within  the  profession  in  the  course,  of  this  study.  The  first  is 
from  the  chief  statistician  in  a  state  industrial  commission : 

"As  for  the  chances  for  women  in  such  work,  I  believe  they 
were  never  better  than  today  because  the  demand  for  trained  and 
capable  statisticians  was  never  so  great  as  now  both  in  public  and 
private  employment.  So  far  as  I  can  see,  it  is  a  profession  to 
which  women  are  naturally  as  well  adapted  as  men  and  I  can  see 
no  reason  why  women  who  develop  capacity  may  not  succeed  as 
well  as  men." 

The  following  comments  are  from  statisticians  in  business : 

"The  war  broke  down  the  barriers  for  women ;  there  is  no  end 
of  opportunity  for  the  statistically  minded,  both  in  routine  posi- 
tions and  in  higher  positions  (especially  in  the  fields  of  business 
and  financial  research)  for  the  specially  gifted  and  those  with  in- 
itiative. The  demand  is  growing." 

"Statistical  work  is  becoming  so  generally  a  part  of  all  large 
business  organizations  that  it  offers  a  wide  and  varied  field  for 
the  college  woman.  The  statistician  must  be  a  good  mathemati- 
cian, economist  and  analyst  if  she  expects  to  reach  the  higher  posi- 
tions, but  there  are  many  grades  of  work  in  this  field  that  are 
attractive  to  the  average  college  woman. 

"It  seems  necessary  for  the  sake  of  permanency  and  flexibility 
of  organization  to  have  the  backbone  of  any  large  statistical  or- 
ganization made  up  of  high-grade  college  men.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  is  a  growing  number  of  openings  for  trained  women 
statisticians  to  take  charge  of  the  statistical  work  in  smaller  or- 
ganizations and  such  openings  afford  a  natural  ultimate  line  of 
advancement  for  those  who  have  gained  experience,  with  larger 
concerns.  In  other  words,  the  greater  the  gamble  the  greater  the 
reward — or  the  less!  There  is  a  real  point  with  regard  to  occu- 
pational selection  here — one  should  think  and  choose  carefully 
which  type  will  bring  the  most  satisfaction  in  the  long  run." 

From  his  varied  experience  in  statistical  work  Dr.  Leonard 
P.  Ayres  has  written: 

"Statistical  work  always  demands  the  services  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  people  who  do  little  more  than  high-grade  clerical  work 


OTHER  VOCATIONAL  CONSIDERATIONS  109 

and  a  small  number  of  people  who  bear  the  responsibility,  do  the 
thinking,  decide  the  form,  and  draw  the  conclusions.  The  field  is 
free  for  all  and  it  is  one  in  which  pull,  money,  social  status,  and 
personal  preferments  have  relatively  little  importance.  Those  who 
have  statistical  ability  and  are  able  to  present  their  material  in 
written  form  so  that  it  carries  conviction  and  will  stand  close  an- 
alysis and  scrutiny,  ultimately  hold  the  high  positions.  It  is  very 
seldom  that  women  statistical  workers  are  willing  to  undertake  the 
independent  effort  that  is  necessary  to  acquire  this  skill.  They  ap- 
pear to  have  the  ability  and  are  doing  much  if  not  most  of  the 
hardest  work  that  is  done  in  the  profession  but  they  seldom  make 
any  new  contribution  or  attempt  to  write  statistical  articles  of  even 
a  modest  sort." 

Dr.  Ayres  thinks  it  important  to  point  out  "to  the  young  woman 
who  is  entering  this  work  that  she  must  first  go  through  her  ap- 
prenticeship of  contact  and  participation,  and  that  after  she  has 
mastered  the  technique  she  must  begin  to  write  statistical  articles 
and  publish  them  if  she  ever  wants  to  rise  to  the  higher  positions 
of  the  profession.  The  men  have  to  travel  that  hard  path  and  the 
women  must,  too,  if  they  expect  to  reach  the  top.  At  the  present 
time  I  think  that  a  majority  of  the  statistical  workers  of  America 
are  women  and  I  think  that  their  participation  in  the  professional 
associations  is  almost  negligible  and  there  are  no  books  and  prac- 
tically no  articles  on  statistical  methods  written  by  women. 

"I  should  think  that  the  qualities  needed  for  successful  work 
in  statistics  were  the  following: 

aptitude  for  numerical  study 

general  education 

ability  to  write 

skill  in  simple  mechanical  drawing 

training  in  statistical  technique. 

The  girl  who  has  the  first  two  ought  to  be  able  to  acquire  the  last 
three  if  she  will  put  as  much  work  into  them  as  do  the  men  with 
whom  she  is  competing  and  in  that  case  she  ought  to  be  equally 
successful." 

The  conclusion  is  justified  that  for  the  woman  with  a  wide  in- 
terest and  trained  intelligence  in  the  economic  and  social  matters 
of  the  day  and  subordinate  to  these,  a  sense  for  facts  and  for  quan- 
titative analysis,  statistical  work  offers  a  broad  and  fairly  un- 
charted field  in  which  she  may  make  of  her  ability  and  interest 
what  she  will. 


no  STATISTICAL  WORK 

QUALIFICATIONS  REQUIRED 

No  attempt  has  as  yet  been  made  by  psychologists  to  isolate 
the  qualities  essential  to  success  in  statistical  work,  and  any  pres- 
ent statement  can  only  be  a  practical  generalization  of  experience. 
The  variety  of  more  or  less  specialized  positions  grouped  under 
statistical  work  has  been  described ;  there  are  certain  qualifications 
corresponding  in  a  general  way  to  their  requirements.  "General 
intelligence"  is  emphasized  by  employers  and  workers  alike  as  the 
sine  qua  non  for  any  kind  of  statistical  work. 

Dr.  Edmund  E.  Day  has  written,  in  regard  to  the  varieties  of 
positions  in  statistical  work : 

"Statistical  work  assumes  a  number  of  different  phases  which 
call  for  essentially  different  qualifications.  The  result  is  that 
women  possessing  ability  along  very  different  lines  may  find  satis- 
factory openings  in  statistical  service.  There  is  a  world  of  differ- 
ence between  the  work  of  a  computer  and  that  of  an  editor  of 
statistical  reports,  and  a  skilled  tabulating  machine  operator  may 
be  quite  unfitted  to  serve  as  a  clerk  editing  incoming  schedules. 
It  is  a  rare  woman  who  can  do  equally  well  the  different  varieties 
of  statistical  work,  and  in  statistical  work  as  elsewhere  specializa- 
tion tends  to  increase  as  the  service  develops.  It  does  not  seem 
to  me  wise  to  suggest  that  as  a  rule  the  various  positions  are  all 
stepping  stones  to  the  position  of  statistician;  there  are  excellent 
openings  all  along  the  line  and  there  are  large  enough  differences 
among  the  different  lines  of  work  to  afford  opportunities  for  every 
variety  of  capacity." 

Subsidiary  Work.  Whatever  other  qualities  she  may  have, 
the  operator  of  computing  and  tabulating  machines  must  be  accu- 
rate, deft  and  patient  and  must  have  the  intelligence  to  understand 
in  a  practical  way  the  highly  specialized  and  delicate  machines  used 
in  statistical  compilation  and  tabulation.  Patience  and  exactness 
with  neatness  are  necessary  qualities  for  the  statistical  draftsman 
also ;  she  must  take  pleasure  in  painstaking  work  with  fine  discrim- 
inations. Her  mind  does  not  need  to  be  limited  to  the  require- 
ments of  drafting,  and  the  more  she  learns  of  the  material  with 
which  she  works  and  its  significance,  the  more  interesting  and  ef- 
fective her  work  may  become. 

The  supervisor  of  a  division  of  statistical  computers  or  clerical 
workers  must  have  executive  ability  to  plan  and  assign  tasks,  esti- 
mate quantity  and  quality  of  output,  recognize  ability  and  develop 
esprit  de  corps.  She  must  know  at  first  hand  and  from  experi- 
ence the  work  of  her  division. 


OTHER  VOCATIONAL  CONSIDERATIONS  in 

For  the  field  investigator  the  desirable  qualities  include  first  a 
zest  for  getting  information  coupled  with  the  ability  to  recognize 
the  desired  information  and  to  discriminate  between  fact  and  opin- 
ion. She  must  be  adaptable  to  various  conditions,  and  able  to 
meet  people  readily;  she  needs  initiative,  tact  and  judgment.  The 
investigator's  value  is  increased  by  the  extent  of  her  knowledge 
of  sources  from  which  the  desired  information  may  be  drawn,  and 
by  the  extent  of  her  comprehension  of  the  problem  in  hand.  The 
routine  investigator  who  goes  forth  to  prescribed  sources  with  a 
prescribed  schedule  must  still  have  tact  in  meeting  with  people, 
judgment  in  selecting  information  and  a  good  knowledge  of  the 
subject  of  investigation. 

The  editor  of  statistical  material  needs  primarily  the  ability 
to  write  clearly  and  skill  in  organizing  subject-matter.  This  at 
once  involves,  in  this  field,  interest  in  the  statistical  presentation 
of  facts  and  some  acquaintance  with  statistical  methods.  She 
must  have  a  good  background  and  intelligence,  with  versatility  for 
becoming  familiar  with  the  material  she  organizes. 

For  all  of  the  subsidiary  work  so  far  included  an  important 
requisite  is  the  ability  and  readiness  to  recognize  and  co-operate 
with  leadership. 

Professional  Work.  For  planning  and  directing  investiga- 
tions and  for  the  important  final  work  of  interpretation  and  re- 
porting, clear  thinking,  imagination,  vision,  good  judgment,  with 
a  sense  of  proportion,  are  fundamental.  Good  organizing  ability, 
definiteness  in  method,  absolute  clearness  of  thought  as  to  the  use 
and  significance  of  reports  are  necessary  to  insure  timeliness  as 
well  as  utility.  Imagination  and  judgment,  depending  upon  broad 
knowledge,  make  the  essential  difference  between  routine  and 
scientific  work  in  statistics.  Expansive  general  intelligence  with 
intensive  zeal  for  exact  facts,  and  knowledge  of  their  practical  use, 
interest  in  quantity,  patience,  versatility;  a  more  than  usual  de- 
gree of  personality  and  initiative ;  and  above  all  a  scientific  love  of 
truth  characterize  the  statistician. 

As  in  all  other  fields  of  work,  seriousness  of  purpose,  a  long 
plan  for  the  development  of  such  purpose,  and  in  general  an  inter- 
est in  and  professional  conception  of  the  work  are  fundamental 
for  progress  and  service. 

ADVANTAGES   AND   LIMITATIONS 

Advantages.  The  advantages  that  are  pointed  out  as  adher- 
ing to  all  kinds  of  statistical  work  are  general ;  such  work  is  ordi- 


ii2  STATISTICAL  WORK 

narily  done  in  higher  class  organizations,  therefore,  the  hours  and 
surroundings  are  apt  to  be  correspondingly  agreeable  and  the  asso- 
ciations with  other  workers  stimulating.  In  all  but  the  most  rou- 
tine positions  there  is  the  satisfaction  of  being  engaged  with  pres- 
ent-day problems  and  in  many  even  of  the  subordinate  positions 
the  opportunity  of  gaining  a  broad  view  of  them  if  one  will.  In 
many  subordinate  positions  also,  as  well  as  in  the  responsible  ones, 
the  work  is  stimulating  mentally  and  offers  opportunity  for  exer- 
cising initiative  and  for  developing  judgment.  A  statistical  de- 
partment is  a  strategic  unit  of  administration  and  therefore  of- 
fers a  vantage  point  for  learning  to  know  the  whole  organization 
of  which  it  is  a  part. 

In  field  work  there  is  opportunity  for  wide  and  varied  observa- 
tion and  contacts;  it  is  also  pointed  out,  however,  that  opportu- 
nity for  direct  and  sympathetic  contact  with  people  is  limited  in 
statistical  work ;  hence  women  who  have  a  great  human  interest  in 
people  and  a  love  for  serving  them  individually  would  probably 
feel  a  certain  emptiness  in  the  seclusion  necessary  for  research  and 
analytical  study. 

The  statistician  has  the  satisfactions  both  of  the  scientist  and 
the  practical  man  of  affairs.  As  a  scientist  he  works  independ- 
ently, with  unlimited  chance  for  growth,  frequently  making  im- 
portant discoveries,  developing  improved  methods ;  because  of  the 
social  character  of  his  data,  he  is  concerned  in  his  investigations 
with  current  human  affairs  and  sees  the  prompt  application  to 
practical  life  of,  the  facts  he  has  made  available  and  interpreted. 

Limitations.  The  chief  limitation  lies  in  the  danger  of  ex- 
treme specialization;  many  positions  offer  only  monotonous  work, 
in  others  there  lies  the  temptation  to  ignore  the  larger  aspects  of 
problems  in  magnifying  the  routine  phase  of  the  work,  because 
of  the  endless  possibilities  of  analysis  and  tabulation  of  data.  A 
detailed  tabulation  may  be  carried  through  and  the  results  prove 
to  be  of  no  use.  The  work  is  tiresome  and  impersonal  unless  the 
statistical  worker  can  see  the  end  in  view  and  is  engrossed  in  that 
end — the  meaning  of  the  figures  she  is  handling.  But  while  one's 
activities  in  statistical  work  may  be  limited  in  that  the  same  kind 
of  statistics  is  done  from  day  to  day,  they  need  never  really  be- 
come routine  because  new  phases  of  problems  always  arise.  The 
work  may  tend  to  become  academic  and  detached,  but  this  is  again 
a  matter  of  temperament  and  ability  to  grasp  a  whole  situation 
rather  than  to  become  lost  in  the  details. 


OTHER  VOCATIONAL  CONSIDERATIONS  113 

HOW  POSITIONS  ARE  SECURED 

Government.  In  regular  Federal  Government  departments 
positions  are  rilled  chiefly  by  civil  service  competitive  examina- 
tions. These  examinations  are  open  to  both  men  and  women,  al- 
though the  chiefs  of  departments  reserve  the  right  to  specify 
"male"  or  "female"  in  making  their  selection  from  the  highest 
three  on  the  list.  Information  in  regard  to  the  examinations  of 
the  Civil  Service  Commission  may  be  secured  from  the  main  of- 
fice in  Washington  or  from  local  offices  which  are  usually  located 
in  customs  houses  or  post  offices.  Positions  not  under  the  civil 
service  are  filled  by  appointment  and  depend  upon  the  superior  of- 
ficer's knowledge  of  or  acquaintance  with  suitable  candidates. 

Most  state  and  municipal  government  positions  are  also  under 
local  civil  service  administration ;  they  are  filled  by  competitive  ex- 
amination of  the  state  or  city  civil  service  commission  and  ap- 
pointment by  the  department. 

Private.  As  has  already  been  indicated,  there  are  various  en- 
trance positions  which  may  lead  to  statistical  work.  Seventy-seven 
women  now  engaged  in  statistical  work  have  indicated  for  this 
study  what  their  first  salaried  position  was.  The  following  is  a 
summary  of  these  reports : 

Teaching    25 

Statistical  clerk  or  assistant 18 

General   clerical   worker 5 

Stenographer    5 

Field    investigator    5 

Computer    4 

Research  assistant    4 

Editorial   assistant    3 

Statistical   draftsman    2 

Newspaper   worker    2 

Actuary's  assistant    i 

Social   case   worker i 

Y.  W.  C.  A.  worker i 

Librarian    i 

Total 77 

It  should  not  be  inferred  that  any  one  of  these  kinds  of  work 
is  an  equally  logical  stepping-stone  to  a  position  in  statistical  work 
although  any  one  of  them  may  have  given  useful  general  prepara- 


H4  STATISTICAL  WORK 

tion  for  it,  and  in  many  of  them  some  practical  technique  could 
be  acquired.  The  inference  is  rather  that  in  this  field  as  in  others 
women  have  often  arrived  by  chance  rather  than  by  design.  With 
this,  however,  must  also  be  considered  the  formative  character  of 
statistical  work  as  a  vocation. 

Eighty-four  of  the  women  who  contributed  information  for 
this  study  reported  the  means  through  which  their  present  posi- 
tions in  statistical  work  were  secured,  as  follows: 

Civil  service  competitive  examination 18 

Recommendation  of  a  friend 14 

Personal  application    13 

Business  acquaintance  with  employer 13 

College  appointment  bureau  or  department 10 

Recommendation  of  former  employer 9 

Advertising    4 

Professional  appointment  bureau 3 


Total    84 

A  few  of  the  comments  made  by  these  women  are  suggestive : 

"A  master's  degree  helped  me  to  secure  the  first  two  positions 
and  previous  experience  the  third." 

"My  unprinted  but  typed  and  bound  research  reports  were 
more  helpful  than  any  other  single  item  in  seeking  P  position." 

"I  was  selected  from  among  twenty-five  applicants  because  of 
my  college  training." 

College  departments  of  economics,  sociology,  education  and 
psychology  frequently  can  recommend  their  graduates  for  posi- 
tions. College  appointment  bureaus  are  in  even  a  stronger  posi- 
tion to  render  this  service  to  the  graduating  classes  and  alumnae. 
The  collegiate  bureaus  of  occupations  in  various  centers  not  only 
fill  the  positions  of  employers  who  apply  to  them  but  frequently 
seek  openings  for  qualified  applicants.  There  are  some  other  em- 
ployment agencies,  public  and  private,  which  occasionally  fill  posi- 
tions in  statistical  work,  and  such  positions  are  sometimes  listed 
in  newspaper  and  periodical  advertisements. 

Ordinarily,  however,  under  present  conditions,  direct  applica- 
tion to  possible  employers  is  the  most  successful  method  to  pursue 
in  seeking  a  position  in  business  and  private  organizations.  A 
recommendation  from  an  instructor,  college  bureau  or  former  em- 
ployer is  of  material  assistance  and  they  are  usually  glad  to  rec- 
ommend a  student  or  employe  who  has  done  good  work.  If  a 


OTHER  VOCATIONAL  CONSIDERATIONS  115 

personal  introduction  can  be  secured  it  is  of  great  advantage.  The 
personal  equation  is  an  important  one  and  employers  prefer  to  fill 
vacancies  with  candidates  whom  they  know  or  of  whose  qualifica- 
tions they  are  assured  by  mutual  acquaintances.  An  employer  is 
apt  to  consider  that  a  person  who  shows  initiative  in  one  direction 
will  show  it  in  another  also,  and  is  therefore  generally  willing  to 
give  anyone  a  chance  who  is  convincing  and  can  show  that  she 
knows  how  to  attack  a  problem — even  the  problem  of  job  hunting. 


SALARIES 

GOVERNMENT 

In  Government  work  entrance  salaries  are  low  and  are  too 
apt  to  remain  so.  The  best  that  a  woman  has  usually  hoped  for 
is  a  position  in  a  supervisory  capacity,  at  a  salary  of  approxi- 
mately $1,800.  This  applies  to  the  permanent  departments  which 
have  only  definite  appropriations  providing  for  statutory  posi- 
tions, rather  than  to  the  departments  which  have  "lump  sum"  ap- 
propriations, permitting  salary  increases  at  the  discretion  of  the 
chief  of  the  bureau  or  department. 

In  estimating  the  salaries  in  the  Federal  Government  it  must 
be  kept  in  mind  that  Congress  is  at  present  considering  several 
measures  for  the  reclassification  of  the  civil  service  and  the  re- 
vision of  salary  and  promotion  scales.  A  comprehensive  salary 
scale  for  Government  service  is  that  recommended  in  the  report  of 
the  Congressional  Joint  Commission  on  Reclassification  of  Sal- 
aries, March  12,  1920.  Positions  in  statistical  work  are  listed  as 
follows : 

Mechanical  Tabulation 

Assorting  Machine  Operator.  $1,140  $1,200  $1,260  $1,320 

Tabulating  Machine  Operator     1,200     1,260     1,320 

General  Tabulating  Machine 

Operator  1,560  1,620  1,680 

Supervisor,  Tabulating  or  As- 
sorting Machine  Section. ..  1,560  1,620  1,680 

Mechanical  Tabulation  Ex- 
aminer    1,440  1,500  1,560 

Supervisor,  Mechanical  Tabu- 
lation Examining  Section. .  1,800  1,920  2,040  2,160 

Principal  Mechanical  Tabu- 
lator    1,980  2,100  2,220  2,340 

Chief  Mechanical  Tabulator..     2,400     2,520     2,640     2,780 

Card   Punch   Operator    1,200     1,260     1,320 

Supervisor,  Card  Punching 
Section,  Bureau  of  Census, 
Bureau  of  Markets,  Bureau 
of  War  Risk  Insurance...  1,560  1,620  1,680 


n6  STATISTICAL  WORK 

Mechanical  Tabulation 

Special  Card  Punch  Operator  $1,320  $1,380  $1,440 

Supervisor,  Special  Card 
Punching  Section,  Bureau 
of  War  Risk  Insurance....  1,620  1,680  1,740  1,800 

Mechanical  Tabulation  Coder     1,200     1,260     1,320 

Special  Mechanical  Tabula- 
tion Coder  1,320  1,380  1,440 

Supervisor  Mechanical  Tabu- 
lation Coding  Section 1,560  1,620  1,680 

Junior  Mechanical  Tabulation 

File  Clerk  1,140  1,200  1,260 

Supervisor,  Mechanical  Tabu- 
lation File  Section 1,560  1,620  1,680 

Special  Mechanical  Tabulation 

File  Clerk  1,320  1,380  1,440 

Supervisor,  Special  Mechan- 
ical Tabulation  File  Section  1,560  1,620  1,680 

Statistical  Clerical  Work 

Under  Statistical  Clerk 1,260     1,320     1,380 

Junior  Statistical  Clerk 1,440     1,500     1,560 

Senior  Statistical  Clerk,  Agri- 
culture, Finance,  Transpor- 
tation    1,620  1,680  1,740  1,800 

Principal  Statistical  Clerk, 
Agriculture,  Finance, 
Transportation  1,980  2,100  2,220  2,340 

Head  Statistical  Clerk,  Cotton 
Production,  Transportation, 
Vital  Statistics  2,400  2,520  2,640  2,760 

Chief  Statistical  Clerk,  Agri- 
culture, Foreign  Commerce, 
Vital  Statistics  2,820  2,940  3,060 

Statistical  Science 

Junior  Statistician 1,800  1,920  2,040  2,160 

Assistant  Statistician    2,400  2,530  2,640  2,760  $2,880  $3,000 

Associate  Statistician   3,240  3,360  3,480  3,600    3,720    3,840 

Statistician,  Population, 
Transportation,  Vital  Sta- 
tistics    4,140  4,320  4,500  4,680  4,860  5,040 

Senior  Statistician,  Popula- 
tion, Transportation,  Vital 
Statistics  

Director  of  the  Census    

Any  woman  who  passed  the  civil  service  examinations  for 
these  positions  would  be  eligible  for  appointment.  Experience  in 
a  Government  department  is  to  be  valued  as  excellent  training. 


OTHER  VOCATIONAL  CONSIDERATIONS  117 

In  the  New  York  City  budget  for  1919,  the  following  is  the 
standard  classification  for  "statisticians"  with  the  corresponding 
salaries : 

Grade  1  Junior    Statistician    $1,200  -  $1,800 

2  Assistant  Statistician  1,980  -    2,820 

3  Statistician     3,060  -    3,840 

4  Chief  Statistician    4,140-   4,740 

Thirty  women  holding  Government  positions,  federal,  state  or 
municipal,  in  statistical  work,  reported  their  salaries  for  this  study. 
The  number  is  too  small  to  warrant  definite  conclusions  and  the 
following  list  of  these  salaries,  with  the  statement  as  to  experience 
and  training,  can  only  serve  as  general  information  concerning  a 
number  of  individual  experiences. 


SALARIES 

OF     WOMEN 

IN     GOVERNMENT     POSITIONS     WHO 

REPORTED  FOR 

THIS  STUDY. 

Salary 

Tears  of  experien 

m  _.    .  

in  related  work 

College 

Non-College 

Special 

Business 

$900 

1 

X 

X 

1,100 

1 

X 

1,300 

6 

X 

X 

X 

1,320 

3 

X 

X 

1,320 

4 

X 

1,350 

2 

X 

1,400 

14 

X 

1,440 

5 

X 

X 

1,440 

2 

X 

X 

1,440 

6 

X 

1,440 

7 

X 

1,440 

5 

X 

1,440 

8 

X 

1,500 

1 

X 

X 

1,540 

2 

X 

1,540 

2 

X 

X 

1,625 

4 

X 

X 

1,640 

10 

X 

X 

1,640 

2 

X 

X 

1,640 

11 

X 

1,800 

7 

X 

X 

1,800 

4 

X 

X 

1,800 

3 

X 

1,800 

2 

X 

1,840 

10 

X 

X 

2,040 

3 

X 

X 

2,100 

7 

X 

X 

2,400 

1% 

X 

X 

2,500 

No  report 

X 

X 

5,000 

20 

X 

X 

n8  STATISTICAL  WORK 

BUSINESS 

In  private  business  organizations  the  salaries  for  the  statistical 
clerical  positions  are  generally  paid  on  a  weekly  basis  instead  of 
on  a  per  annum  basis  as  is  usual  in  the  Government.  The  most 
common  entrance  salary  among  twenty  business  corporations 
proved  to  be  $20  a  week ;  the  highest  salary  for  a  statistical  clerk 
was  $39.  Salaries  for  responsible  work  ranged  from  $2,400  to 
$5,000. 

In  the  field  of  insurance  the  salaries,  on  the  whole,  are  less, 
and  the  promotions  do  not  come  as  quickly  as  in  other  fields.  It 
is  the  field  in  which  women  have  advanced  perhaps  the  least,  al- 
though there  is  no  reason  why  they  should  not.  Positions  are  of- 
fered to  girls  with  college  training  at  as  little  as  $10  a  week,  in 
some  of  the  larger  insurance  companies,  with  small  prospect  of 
advancement.  This  is  not  even  a  living  wage,  but  if  a  girl  can 
afford  to  consider  the  experience  gained  as  part  of  her  training 
and  include  the  cost  under  "education,"  it  may  be  valuable  to  her 
in  the  future.  There  has  been  observed  a  recent  tendency  in  busi- 
ness to  pay  better  salaries  for  this  type  of  work. 

In  industrial  and  commercial  organizations  statistical  work  is 
in  the  process  of  becoming  established  and  salaries  are  therefore 
probably  more  variable  and  flexible. 

The  following  list  is  a  summary  of  the  information  received 
in  regard  to  salary  from  women  who  are  doing  statistical  work  in 
business  organizations. 

SALARIES  OF  WOMEN  IN  BUSINESS  POSITIONS  WHO  EEPOETED 
FOB  THIS  STUDY. 


Tears 

Salaries       of  experience 

r 

in  related  work 

College 

Non-College      Special             Business 

Manufacturing 

$1,092              1/6 

X 

1,200               2 

X 

1,200               3 

X                               X 

I,500&bonus2 

X 

X 

1,560               2 

X 

1,680               3 

X 

X 

1,680               2 

X 

1,800               2 

X                             X 

1,847               3 

X 

X 

1,872               9 

X 

2,000               2 

X 

X 

2,000               8 

X 

X 

2,400               1 

X 

X 

OTHER  VOCATIONAL  CONSIDERATIONS 


119 


SALARIES  OF  WOMEN  IN  BUSINESS  POSITIONS  WHO  REPORTED 
FOR  THIS  STUDY. 


Finance 

1,300 
1,500 
1,500 
1,500 
1,800 
2,000 
3,500 


3 

2 
31 

2 

3 

2 

20 


Insurance 

1,060-1,400 

1,320 

1,320 

1,500 

1,700 

1,800 

2,080 


4 
2 
9 
G 

11 
2 
3 


No  report 


Advertising 

2,700  4 

5,000  3 

Trade  Associations 

1,500  % 

3,000  3 


Statistical  Service  Organisations 


1,040 
1,200 
1,400 
1,400 
1,500 
1,600 
5,000 


2 
3 
2 
2 
3 

26 
8 


EDUCATIONAL  AND  SOCIAL  WORK 

In  educational  and  social  work  women  are  in  general  better 
established;  the  salaries  women  are  receiving  in  these  fields  are 
therefore  more  apt  to  represent  the  usual  salary  range  for  this 
kind  of  work.  Fewer  salaries  have  been  reported  from  these 
fields  than  from  any  other;  they  are  as  follows: 


120 


STATISTICAL  WORK 


SALARIES     OF    WOMEN    IN    EDUCATIONAL    POSITIONS    WHO 
REPORTED  FOR  THIS  STUDY. 


Salary 

$1,020 
1,500 
1,500 
1,560 
1,600 
1,800 
1,800 
1,875 
2,400 
2,400 
4,000 


Tears 
of  experience 


Training- 


in  related  work  College    Non-College  Special 

2  x 

x  x 


Business 


1 
2 
1 
6 
1 
2 
4 

10 
4 

20 


SALARIES    OF    WOMEN  IN    SOCIAL    WORK     POSITIONS     WHO 
REPORTED  FOR  THIS  STUDY. 


$1,260 

3 

x 

1,430 

2 

X 

1,530 

X 

1,800 

1 

X 

2,000 

3 

X 

2,000 

4 

X 

2,400 

9 

X 

3,000 

11 

X 

PART  VII. 

Sketches  from  the  Experience  of  Women 
in  Statistical  Work 

THE  following  brief  summary  of  the  experiences  of  a  num- 
ber of  women  engaged  in  statistical  work  may  serve  to  illus- 
trate in  a  number  of  ways  the  preceding  discussion  of  positions, 
fields  of  work,  preparation  and  opportunity  for  women  in  this  field 
as  these  various  aspects  present  themselves  concretely  in  the  career 
of  an  individual  worker.  These  sketches  illustrate  also  the  con- 
clusion that  only  in  few  instances  have  women  as  yet  attained  to 
the  professional  rank  of  statistician;  in  practically  every  situation 
cited,  however,  there  is  inherent  the  possibility  of  development  to 
larger  responsibility. 

GOVERNMENT 

A  high  school  graduate  was  employed  to  do  general  steno- 
graphic work  for  a  state  commissioner  of  health,  and  was  later 
assistant  state  registrar  for  two  and  a  half  years.  After  a  semes- 
ter course  in  vital  statistics  in  a  school  of  public  health,  she  was 
promoted  to  be  the  head  of  the  state  bureau  of  vital  statistics, 
where  she  has  charge  of  the  collecting,  classifying  and  tabulating 
of  the  birth  and  death  statistics  of  the  state.  Her  present  salary 
is  $1,800. 

She  comments:  "It  seems  to  me  that  statistical  work  is  in  its 
infancy  and  I  do  not  see  why  women  cannot  be  successful  in  it. 
One  comes  in  contact  with  a  splendid  class  of  people  in  public 
health  work.  As  I  am  in  entire  charge  of  the  bureau  its  success 
or  failure  depends  upon  my  initiative.  From  the  fact  that  in  most 
states  these  appointments  are  political  it  is  hard  to  estimate  the 
opportunity  that  women  would  have  in  this  work." 

In  another  state  a  woman's  first  position  was  a  temporary  ap- 
pointment to  do  some  special  statistical  work  for  the  health  de- 
partment, which  was  then  in  process  of  reorganization.  She  was  a 
college  graduate  who  had  specialized  in  languages  and  advanced 
mathematics  and  had  studied  economics,  social  science,  accounting 
and  statistics.  Because  of  her  training  and  satisfactory  work,  she 

121 


122  STATISTICAL  WORK 

was  retained  permanently  as  a  statistician.  The  position  was  un- 
der civil  service,  but  since  there  was  no  eligible  list  she  was  previ- 
ously appointed  and  a  special  examination  was  requested  for  her. 
She  took  some  special  courses  on  the  side  in  demography  and  busi- 
ness statistics.  After  three  years  and  a  half  she  left  to  take  charge 
of  statistical  work  and  office  in  the  state  minimum  wage  commis- 
sion. She  is  officially  called  "senior  clerk."  She  arranges  and 
plans  the  statistical  work  of  the  commission  and  is  responsible  for 
all  final  checking.  She  personally  does  a  small  part  of  the  investi- 
gation and  gathering  of  data  also. 

Her  discussion  of  her  two  state  positions  suggests  various  con- 
siderations :  "First  of  all  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  my  range 
in  salary  ($720-1,440)  in  four  years  would  scarcely  be  typical  in  a 
real  business  office.  Increases  in  state  work  depend  not  on  what 
your  superior  believes  you  to  be  worth  but  upon  your  initial  salary, 
length  of  service,  appropriations,  and  the  final  decision  of  a  body 
of  men  who  know  you  only  through  written  recommendations.  It 
is  to  their  interest  to  spend  as  little  money  as  possible  rather  than 
to  retain  efficient  workers.  In  my  own  case,  when  I  left  the  Health 
Department  to  take  another  position  in  state  work  at  a  salary  $300 
higher,  the  health  commissioner  was  glad  and  willing  to  give  me 
the  same  amount  in  order  to  retain  me,  but  by  law  was  unable  to 
make  any  change  in  my  salary  for  six  months,  and  even  then  could 
not  guarantee  to  obtain  the  amount  for  which  he  had  recom- 
mended me. 

"This  position  had  much  more  opportunity  for  original  work 
since  I  had  developed  it  and  had  it  been  an  ordinary  business  con- 
cern I  should  not  have  considered  making  the  change  even  for  the 
larger  salary  offered. 

"The  statistical  work  of  the  Minimum  Wage  Commission  is 
carried  on  in  a  pre-arranged  manner — that  is  to  say,  from  the 
original  records  the  same  tables  and  analyses  are  made  for  each 
investigation.  The  one  advantage  over  the  other  position  is  that 
the  statistician  works  from  records  obtained  by  herself  or  under 
her  direction.  However,  after  one  or  two  investigations  the  work 
becomes  rather  automatic.  .  .  . 

"I  feel  that  training  such  as  I  have  had  is  excellent  for  one 
interested  in  statistical  work.  ...  I  understand  that  the  field 
is  comparatively  new,  in  which  case  much  depends  on  the  pioneers." 

A  very  different  course  of  progress  into  statistical  work  was 
that  of  a  statistical  clerk  in  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. After  completing  high  school  and  one  year  of  college  with 


EXPERIENCES  OF  WOMEN  IN  STATISTICAL  WORK        123 

a  course  in  accounting  she  was  first  a  bookkeeper  in  a  manufac- 
turing plant,  then  office  assistant  in  an  auditor's  office.  She  took 
some  work  on  the  side  in  business  law  and  banking  and  heard  lec- 
tures in  economics  and  statistics.  On  passing  a  competitive  civil 
service  examination  she  was  appointed  to  her  present  position,  in 
which  she  has  charge  of  a  statistical  section  of  agricultural 
geography. 

She  feels  that  some  experience  which  will  make  one  accurate 
and  able  to  handle  other  people  is  essential  preparation  for  the  work 
she  is  doing ;  that  to  be  a  statistician  a  woman  would  have  to  have 
university  training  in  other  subjects  in  addition  to  work  in 
statistics. 

For  her  present  work  in  analyzing  and  tabulating  cost  accounts 
and  price  data  sent  in  by  various  industries  for  the  United  States 
Tariff  Commission,  a  woman  secured  her  special  training  on  the 
job.  She  was  a  college  graduate  with  the  degree  B.  S.  and  the  ex- 
perience of  fifteen  years  of  teaching  as  her  general  background. 

"When  the  need  for  workers  was  great  I  became  a  member  of 
the  price  section  of  the  War  Industries  Board,  whose  chief  was  the 
authority  in  this  country  on  price  statistics.  I  had  never  done 
statistical  work  but  I  found  that  my  general  training  was  a  great 
help.  I  did  investigative  and  analytical  work,  tabulating,  comput- 
ing, in  fact  helping  out  where  needed. 

"Later  I  joined  the  staff  at  the  Tariff  Commission  and  am 
assistant  to  the  chief  cost  accountant.  I  take  the  cost  reports  sent 
in  by  the  various  firms,  study  them,  analyze  the  different  items, 
tabulate  them,  check  them,  watching  for  inconsistencies  and  dis- 
crepancies. I  find  it  very  interesting  but  wish  I  had  had  training 
in  statistical  methods. 

"Training  along  the  line  of  price  statistics  or  production  statis- 
tics and  a  keen  appreciation  of  statistical  methods  will  always  find 
recognition,  I  believe. 

"Statistical  clerks  in  the  Government  seem  too  often  to  have 
little  initiative  or  chance  for  it  and  to  find  their  work  dull  and  un- 
interesting. I  like  mine  and  believe  in  it." 

A  woman  employed  as  "statistical  clerk"  in  the  Bureau  of  For- 
eign and  Domestic  Commerce  writes  up  statistical  material  for 
publication  in  Commerce  Reports  and  for  trade  journals  and  press 
publicity  purposes.  She  had  a  business  course  after  high  school 
and  held  various  stenographic  and  other  clerical  positions.  She 
entered  the  bureau  by  a  competitive  civil  service  examination, 


124  STATISTICAL  WORK 

where  for  some  years  she  was  a  correspondence  clerk,  handling  all 
correspondence  on  one  particular  industrial  subject,  and  taking 
charge  of  the  files. 

"I  have  done  the  usual  tabulation,  compilation,  and  adding  ma- 
chine work  of  the  division  in  the  past,  and  have  to  be  familiar 
with  it  in  order  to  secure  the  figures  I  require  in  writing  the  stories. 
One  has  to  comply  with  certain  hard  and  fast  rules,  such  as  elim- 
inating all  except  absolutely  necessary  adjectives;  no  opinions  of 
any  kind  may  be  stated  and  no  information  other  than  from  gov- 
ernment sources  may  be  used ;  text  must  conform  to  straight  statis- 
tical facts  and  nothing  else. 

"A  knowledge  of  all  commodities  in  commerce  is  necessary,  as 
well  as  of  transportation,  cost  of  living,  sociology  in  other  coun- 
tries, labor  and  wages — in  fact,  everything  that  affects  the  prices  of 
commodities  in  the  commerce  of  the  world." 

A  woman  working  in  the  Department  of  Agriculture  majored 
in  economics  and  sociology  in  college,  including  work  in  statistics. 
"My  course  in  statistics,  of  course,  gave  me  a  general  insight  into 
statistical  methods,  but  I  feel  my  whole  college  training  contributed 
to  the  broader  point  of  view  which  has  made  my  present  work  pos- 
sible. I  believe  a  college  education  can  alone  give  the  necessary 
foundation  for  the  intelligent  handling  of  statistics  in  relation  to 
present  social  and  economic  conditions.  One  must  have  a  broad 
outlook  and  general  intelligence  which  sees  through  and  beyond  the 
figures  into  the  facts  and  conditions  which  they  symbolize." 

This  worker  spent  one  summer  vacation  as  clerk  in  the  editorial 
department  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census  and  after  college  became 
statistical  clerk  in  the  Bureau  of  Markets,  from  where  she  was 
transferred  to  her  present  position.  She  is  in  charge  of  the  office 
work,  statistical,  editorial  and  general,  in  connection  with  an  inves- 
tigation in  agricultural  insurance. 

"My  work  at  present  has  departed  considerably  from  the  purely 
statistical  field  in  that  it  includes  research  work  concerning  the  in- 
surance laws  of  the  United  States  and  foreign  countries,  editorial 
work  in  the  preparation  of  statistics  and  manuscripts  for  publica- 
tion and  general  planning  and  supervision  of  the  office  activities 
on  all  lines. 

"In  the  narrow  sense,  i.  e.,  the  mere  tabulation  and  computation 
of  figures,  it  is  drudgery;  in  a  broader  sense  it  is  interesting  work. 

"There  seems  to  be  an  ever  increasing  demand  for  statistics  in 
all  lines  of  investigation.  Advancement  in  positions  depends  en- 


EXPERIENCES  OF  WOMEN  IN  STATISTICAL  WORK         125 

tirely  upon  the  ability  and  self-assertion  of  the  individual;  men 
still  have  the  advantage." 

BUSINESS 

Manufacturing.  A  college  graduate  with  a  science  major  be- 
came research  assistant  to  a  professor  of  science,  then  statistical 
research  worker  in  the  United  States  Shipping  Board.  She  is  now 
research  assistant  to  the  trade  adviser  of  a  large  manufacturing 
corporation.  She  compiles  statistics  which  are  used  as  a  back- 
ground for  judging  the  present  rate  of  business  increase,  abstracts 
all  notices  in  current  publications  which  give  information  for  possi- 
ble sales,  etc.,  and  records  all  significant  information  wherever 
found.  She  supplies  the  interpretation  for  all  her  own  data.  She 
recommends  as  preparation  for  the  kind  of  work  she  is  doing  a 
background  of  general  information,  including  a  knowledge  of  geog- 
raphy and  foreign  economic  conditions,  with  a  university  education 
including  mathematics,  English  and  foreign  languages. 

In  another  industry  a  woman  is  head  of  the  graphic  department, 
making  graphs  of  every  phase  of  the  business  and  analyzing  them 
for  the  executives,  as  well  as  compiling  the  necessary  data.  She 
has  to  understand  all  departments  in  a  general  way  in  order  to 
make  her  own  department  function  properly;  she  therefore  has 
access  to  all  departments  and  records.  Her  training  has  been  a 
college  course  with  major  work  in  mathematics  and  science.  She 
advises  for  a  "good  solid  foundation"  a  general  education  with  a 
good  knowledge  of  mathematics.  She  had  taught  six  years  after 
college,  and  had  been  ledger  clerk  in  a  manufacturing  plant. 

In  a  firm  of  consultants  and  engineers  in  industrial  personnel, 
a  woman  is  engaged  in  industrial  research.  She  graduated  from 
college  and  has  done  considerable  graduate  work  in  mathematics, 
educational  psychology  and  statistics.  She  has  taught  science  for 
five  years  and  been  statistician  and  business  manager  for  a  psycho- 
logical and  sociological  research  laboratory  in  connection  with  a 
public  institution. 

In  her  present  position  she  tabulates  and  interprets  mental  test 
records  and  various  scales  and  has  done  some  work  on  trade  tests. 
She  assists  in  studies  of  wages,  labor  turnover,  etc.,  making  her 
own  interpretations.  A  detailed  report  is  made  to  her  chief  and 
significant  points  are  issued  in  bulletins  to  clients.  It  is  her  experi- 
ence that  members  of  the  staff  tend  to  become  specialists  and  en- 
tirely responsible  for  the  work  in  their  specialty.  She  recommends 


126  STATISTICAL  WORK 

the  experience  to  be  gained  in  working  with  a  good  statistician  as 
well  as  a  good  general  course  in  statistics.  Knowledge  of  how  to 
operate  machines  she  also  considers  a  useful  item  of  equipment. 
Patience,  accuracy,  and  the  ability  to  observe  are  essential  general 
qualifications. 

Banking  and  Finance.  A  woman  who  is  financial  statistician 
in  an  investment  house  started  as  secretary  to  the  vice-president 
at  $17  a  week,  a  position  which  required  stenographic  skill  and  a 
knowledge  of  statistics.  Bit  by  bit  she  reached  out  for  the  sta- 
tistical work  until  she  had  built  up  a  separate  department.  Within 
a  year  she  had  attained  a  salary  of  $2,500.  She  explains  that  this 
would  only  be  possible  with  a  young  and  developing  corporation 
but  she  feels  there  is  a  constantly  and  rapidly  increasing  field  for 
women  as  financial  statisticians  with  unlimited  opportunity  for  ad- 
vancement, although  as  yet  there  is  a  salary  discrimination  against 
them. 

In  her  judgment  the  statistician  should  have  a  mathematical 
background;  this  does  not  mean  higher  mathematics,  necessarily, 
but  rather  a  liking  for  figures,  an  analytical  mind  and  absolute  ac- 
curacy. In  an  investment  and  security  house  the  work  is  chiefly 
tabulating,  computing  and  projecting — graphs  are  rarely  used  ex- 
cept when  it  is  necessary  to  publish  the  results  for  the  benefit  of 
the  layman. 

A  statistician  in  another  investment  house  is  engaged  not  in 
purely  statistical,  but  in  more  general  economic  research,  writing 
industry  reports  or  analyses  of  the  economic  status  of  various  basic 
industries  in  whose  securities  her  house  is  interested.  Her  college 
specialties  were  economics  and  English  with  work  in  statistics,  ac- 
counting and  modern  languages.  She  advises  a  background  of 
natural  sciences  both  for  the  sake  of  the  subject  matter  and  for 
training  in  scientific  thinking,  as  well  as  a  study  of  statistics,  eco- 
nomics, commercial  geography,  foreign  languages  and  English. 
Higher  mathematics  she  does  not  deem  necessary. 

Insurance.  A  teacher  of  mathematics  in  high  school  became 
after  ten  years  assistant  to  an  actuary  engaged  in  rate-making  for 
casualty  insurance.  Her  college  work,  which  was  extended  to 
cover  the  requirements  for  a  master's  degree,  had  included  statis- 
tics, mathematics,  accounting  and  insurance.  Her  university  rec- 
ommended her  for  this  position.  The  experience  of  various  com- 
panies is  compiled  in  her  office  and  this  compilation  serves  as  a 


EXPERIENCES  OF  WOMEN  IN  STATISTICAL  WORK         127 

basis  for  solving  the  problems  of  rate-making,  principally  for  work- 
men's compensation  insurance. 

Advertising.  With  a  doctor's  degree  in  economics  and  sociol- 
ogy, a  year's  work  as  chief  of  a  section  in  the  United  States  Food 
Administration  and  special  experience  in  the  United  States  War 
Industries  Board,  a  woman  has  become  head  of  the  department  of 
statistics  and  investigation  in  an  advertising  firm,  where  she  is  in 
charge  of  planning  and  carrying  through  all  kinds  of  investigations 
relative  to  products  advertised  by  the  firm.  She  is  responsible  for 
a  large  variety  of  statistical  reports,  whose  form  she  is  working  to 
standardize.  She  has  had  no  formal  training  in  statistics  but  a 
lively  interest  in  methods  of  statistical  presentation. 

STATISTICAL  SERVICE  ORGANIZATIONS 

A  college  graduate  with  work  in  advanced  mathematics,  biology 
and  economics  and  a  course  in  stenography  has  been  statistical  clerk 
in  a  public  utilities  corporation,  in  the  United  States  Shipping 
Board,  and  in  a  manufacturing  plant.  She  is  now  supervisor  of 
statistical  work  and  the  files  in  a  statistical  service  organization 
which  compiles  business  information  and  forecasts  business  con- 
ditions. "The  work  naturally  covers  a  wide  field  and  is  exceedingly 
interesting.  At  the  present  time  I  am  responsible  for  the  files  and 
am  trying  to  systematize  the  filing  methods.  Files  usually  go  hand 
in  hand  with  statistics,  especially  in  small  organizations,  and  it  is 
desirable  that  a  woman  going  in  for  statistics  should  be  familiar 
with  efficient  filing  methods.  It  is  a  simple  thing,  however.  My 
knowledge  of  filing  has  been  picked  up  through  observation  and 
practical  experience. 

"I  also  supervise  several  boys  who  are  employed  as  statistical 
clerks.  I  will  give  an  example  of  my  role  in  the  organization. 
The  various  men  turn  over  the  jobs  which  they  want  done  to  me. 
One  man  will  tell  me  that  he  wants  index  numbers  of  the  pur- 
chasing power  of  a  pound  sterling  in  England  and  the  United 
States  for  a  certain  period.  Perhaps  he  will  tell  me  sources  for 
figures  which  I  need  to  work  with  and  perhaps  he  will  not.  I  plan 
and  figure  out  the  problem,  assign  it  to  one  of  the  boys  and  show 
him  how  to  do  it. 

"I  think  that  statistics  is  a  very  good  field  for  a  woman  who 
is  adapted  to  it,  but  to  be  successful  she  must  be  a  clear  thinker. 
She  must  be  the  kind  that  does  original  problems  in  algebra  and 
geometry  easily  and  who  likes  economics.  She  should  also  have 
initiative.  The  demand  for  statistics  has  grown  rapidly  in  the  last 


128  STATISTICAL  WORK 

few  years  and  is  still  growing  rapidly  but  good  positions  are  not 
as  yet  very  plentiful  and  it  is  up  to  statistical  workers,  especially 
women,  to  make  a  place  for  themselves.  I  should  advise  a  woman 
to  get  her  first  statistical  experience  in  a  large,  efficiently  run  de- 
partment, and  while  in  such  an  organization  to  use  her  powers  of 
observation.  After  two  or  three  years  in  a  large  organization  a 
woman  who  enjoys  taking  initiative  and  depending  upon  herself 
would  find  it  more  interesting  and  perhaps  more  profitable  event- 
ually to  assume  responsibility  in  a  small  organization.  The  field 
of  manufacturing  statistics  is,  I  think,  the  most  difficult  and  the 
least  promising  for  a  woman.  These  statistics  usually  require  a 
working  knowledge  of  cost  accounting  and  often  involve  a  certain 
amount  of  factory  systematizing." 

EDUCATION 

In  an  organization  devoted  to  educational  research  a  woman  is 
employed  to  do  mental  testing,  to  prepare  the  statistics  and  charts 
tabulating  the  results,  and  to  prepare  the  material  for  publication. 
After  graduating  from  college  with  considerable  work  in  mathe- 
matics and  social  sciences,  she  completed  the  work  required  for  a 
master's  degree,  specializing  in  education  and  mathematics.  She 
believes  that  this  second  degree  helped  her  secure  her  first  two 
positions,  as  assistant  in  a  college  psychological  laboratory  and  as 
assistant  in  statistics  in  a  special  piece  of  psychological  research 
work ;  and  that  she  was  selected  for  her  present  position  because  of 
the  experience  she  had  gained  in  the  first  two.  Her  present  work 
requires  considerable  initiative  and  responsibility. 

SOCIAL  WORK 

A  varied  preparation,  normal  school,  college,  business  school 
and  a  course  in  actuarial  science,  and  an  equally  varied  experience 
in  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor,  the  Census  Bureau,  as  as- 
sistant superintendent  of  a  reform  school,  field  secretary  for  a 
state  tuberculosis  society,  special  agent  for  the  Children's  Bureau, 
and  statistician  for  the  United  States  Shipping  Board,  have  formed 
a  valuable  background  for  a  woman  who  is  establishing  a  research 
department  in  an  important  national  health  organization.  She  is 
responsible  for  the  preparation  of  all  schedules,  questionnaires,  etc., 
used  by  any  department  and  carries  out  independent  statistical 
studies  in  which  she  is  entirely  charged  with  the  interpretation  of 
her  data.  She  has  written  a  report  on  infant  mortality,  prepared 


EXPERIENCES  OF  WOMEN  IN  STATISTICAL  WORK         129 

a  handbook  to  be  used  in  making  surveys,  and  completed  an  investi- 
gation of  the  economic  cost  of  one  prevalent  disease. 

She  majored  in  mathematics  in  college,  and  took  work  in  eco- 
nomics and  social  science.  She  has  a  good  knowledge  of  three 
modern  languages.  Statistical  methods  she  learned  by  experience. 

A  logical  mind,  straightforward  diction,  capacity  for  hard  and 
sustained  work  and  a  mind  for  detail  are  the  qualifications  she  em- 
phasizes as  requisite  for  this  kind  of  work.  She  feels  that  statis- 
tical work  for  women  has  just  begun  to  open  up  and  that  there 
are  great  possibilities  in  it,  although  the  chances  for  men  are  still 
better. 


PART  VIII. 

Summary 

1.  The  Nature  and  Use  of  Statistics.     Statistics  are  quantita- 
tive statements  of  facts  which  have  been  scientifically  collected  and 
arranged  for  purposes  of  comparison.     The  significance  of  a  care- 
ful analysis  of  facts  is  increasingly  recognized  as  a  guide  to  policy 
in  government,  business,  education  and  social  work.     As  a  science 
statistics  has  a  history,  a  body  of  literature,  underlying  principles 
governing  statistical  method. 

2.  Statistical  method  is  made  up  of  the  processes,  governed 
by  definite  principles,  which  are  involved  in  (a)  collecting,  (b)  an- 
alyzing and  organizing,  (c)  interpreting  and  presenting  statistical 
facts.     Statistical  methods  are  employed  not  only  in  economic  and 
social  problems  but  also  in  science  and  engineering. 

3.  Kinds  of  Positions  in  Statistical  Work.     In  statistical  work 
there  are  many  subsidiary  positions  which  may  be  highly  special- 
ized— machine  operator,   computer,    draftsman — especially  where 
large  enumerations  are  made.     Some  subsidiary  positions  such  as 
editor,  accountant,  field  investigator  and  in  some  instances  clerk, 
carry  with  them  a  considerable  degree  of  responsibility  and  offer 
opportunity  for  excellent  experience.     Statisticians  carry  full  re- 
sponsibility not  only  for  planning  and  carrying  on  investigations 
but  for  the  culminating  task  of  interpreting  the  results. 

4.  Fields  in  which  Statistical  Workers  are  Employed.     Gov- 
ernment departments.     There  are  statistical  divisions  in  practically 
every  government  department.     In  them  are  compiled  regularly 
basic  cumulative  statistics  of  population,  education,  agriculture,  in- 
dustry and  commerce.     Special  investigations  are  conducted  in  ad- 
dition and  results  published.     Annual  reports  of  departments  con- 
tain important  statistical  data. 

Business.  Manufacturers  conduct  research  for  the  improve- 
ment of  processes  and  of  product,  for  greater  efficiency  in  internal 
management,  for  development  of  markets  and  sales,  for  intelligent 
handling  of  all  matters  pertaining  to  workers.  Banks  and  invest- 

130 


SUMMARY  131 

ment  houses  study  demands  for  capital  and  all  matters  related  to 
domestic  and  foreign  finance  and  commerce.  Insurance  has  always 
depended  primarily  upon  statistical  data,  particularly  in  rate- 
making.  Accountants  analyze  and  present  graphically  the  business 
facts  and  relations  included  in  their  records.  Advertising  agencies 
and  departments  analyze  facts  that  influence  business,  in  order  to 
discover  principles  of  procedure  in  advertising  and  advising  pa- 
trons. Graphic  methods  are  largely  used  in  illustrating  advertise- 
ments. Merchants  analyze  internal  records  and  external  facts  af- 
fecting trade.  Trade  associations  establish  statistical  departments 
for  collecting,  summarizing  and  distributing  to  their  members  data 
in  regard  to  such  industrial  and  commercial  factors  as  influence 
the  trade  they  individually  represent.  Trade,  commercial  and 
financial  papers  require  some  staff  members  prepared  to  do  statis- 
tical work. 

Statistical  Service  Organisations.  There  have  recently  grown 
up  a  number  of  organizations  particularly  devoted  to  the  purpose 
of  securing  and  distributing  statistical  information  on  all  phases 
of  business  conditions  and  making  business  forecasts. 

Educational  Agencies .'  Departments  of  education  and  psychol- 
ogy and  private  organizations  increasingly  make  scientific  studies 
of  various  factors  of  school  administration,  and  statistical  com- 
parisons of  the  psychological  aspects  of  education.  Public  school 
departments  employ  statisticians.  There  is  considerable  opportu- 
nity for  teaching  statistics;  in  a  few  instances  supervisors  of  sta- 
tistical laboratories  are  employed. 

Social  Agencies.  A  beginning  has  also  been  made  in  applying 
scientific  methods  in  analyzing  the  complex  social  facts  other  than 
those  involved  in  the  problems  of  education.  The  more  important 
social  agencies  are  introducing  statistical  departments;  in  others 
records  are  compiled  by  clerical  employes,  or  statistical  workers  are 
temporarily  engaged. 

5.  Preparation  for  Statistical  Work.  For  subsidiary  posi- 
tions in  statistical  work  clerical  training  or  the  acquisition  of  a  cer- 
tain 'special  skill — machine  operating,  computing,  drafting — is 
necessary ;  this  may  be  acquired  by  experience.  For  any  responsi- 
ble work  in  statistics  it  is  evident  that  training  consists  (a)  in  ac- 
quiring a  comprehension  of  the  principles  and  methods  involved  in 
statistical  work  and  skill  in  applying  them  to  actual  problems,  (b) 
in  developing,  through  a  broad  education  and  experience,  judgment 


132  STATISTICAL  WORK 

in  the  planning  of  investigations  and  in  the  interpretation  and  eval- 
uation of  results. 

A  general  course  in  statistics  may  well  be  elected  as  a  part  of 
the  college  preparation,  specifically  vocational  courses  in  statistics 
are  offered  in  schools  of  social  work,  schools  of  business,  schools  of 
education  and  in  technical  schools.  Graduate  work  in  statistics  is 
profitably  elected  in  the  department  of  major  work. 

Judgment  in  the  interpretation  and  evaluation  of  data  depends 
as  far  as  training  is  concerned,  upon  a  broad  general  education  in 
which  a  college  course,  including  work  in  economics,  statistics, 
mathematics,  foreign  languages  and  English,  is  fundamental,  and 
upon  a  thorough  grounding  in  the  subject  to  which  the  statistics 
relate. 

6.  Other  Vocational  Considerations.  Opportunity  for  Women 
in  Statistical  Work.  The  future  for  statistical  work  in  general 
is  promising.  There  are  no  limitations  for  women  inherent  in  the 
work  itself  ;  as  in  other  fields  the  leadership  of  men  has  traditionally 
been  accepted.  Good  work  is  recognized,  however,  and  for  women 
who  are  qualified  and  trained  for  it  and  who  will  enter  upon  their 
vocation  with  professional  purpose,  statistical  work  offers  good 
opportunity. 

Qualifications  Required.  For  the  subsidiary  tasks  involved  in 
statistical  work,  accuracy,  patience,  neatness  are  requisite ;  for  field 
investigation,  ability  to  meet  people,  zest  for  hunting  information 
and  judgment  in  selecting  it;  for  supervision,  executive  ability;  for 
editorial  work,  a  gift  for  clear  expression.  For  any  statistical 
worker  charged  witft  responsibility  interest  in  quantitative  methods 
and  in  the  scientific  pursuit  of  truth,  versatility,  good  general  intel- 
ligence are  primary.  Vision  and  judgment,  implying  broad  back- 
ground of  training  and  experience  qualify  the  statistician. 

Advantages  and  Limitations.  Good  surroundings,  stimulating 
associations,  opportunity  for  unlimited  development,  independent 
work  with  results  of  practical  value,  these  are  advantages  adhering 
to  statistics.  The  chief  limitation  rests  in  the  temptation  to  be- 
come involved  in  the  technique  and  lose  vision  and  control. 

How  Positions  Are  Secured.  Civil  service  examinations,  fed- 
eral, state,  and  municipal,  are  the  usual  entrance  to  government  po- 
sitions. College  and  professional  employment  bureaus  and  adver- 
tisements are  frequently  effective  in  placing  statistical  workers, 
but  personal  application,  recommendation  of  teachers  or  employers, 


SUMMARY  133 

examples  of  past  work  are  the  most  useful  means  to  apply  in 
securing  a  position. 

Salaries.  Because  of  the  variety  of  positions  connected  with 
statistical  work  the  salary  range  is  large.  Positions  are  unstand- 
ardized  and  lines  of  promotion  indefinite.  In  general,  machine  op- 
erators are  paid  from  $900  for  beginning  work  to  $1,600  for  super- 
vision of  a  section;  statistical  clerical  work  from  $1,000  to  $3,000; 
statisticians  from  $2,000  to  $5,000  to  very  high  salaries  for  respon- 
sible trade  advisers. 


Appendix 

I.     OPPORTUNITIES  FOR  TRAINING 

INDEX  TO  SCHOOLS 

PAGE 

Albion  College,  Albion,  Michigan 137 

Arkansas,   University  of,  Fayetteville,  Arkansas 137 

Babson  Institute,  Wellesley  Hills,  Massachusetts 141 

Boston  University,  Boston,  Massachusetts 141,  144,  147 

Brown  University,  Providence,  Rhode  Island 137 

Bryn  Mawr  College,  Bryn  Mawr,  Pennsylvania 137,  144 

California,  University  of,  Berkeley,  California 137,  141,  145,  146 

Carnegie  Institute  of  Technology,  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania 141,  144 

Cedar  Crest  College,  Allentown,  Pennsylvania 137 

Chicago,  University  of,  Chicago,  Illinois 137,  142,  144,  146 

Cincinnati,  University  of,  Cincinnati,  Ohio 137,  147 

Coe  College,  Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa 137 

College  of  the  City  of  New  York,  New  York,  New  York 147 

College  of  Industrial  Arts,  Denton,  Texas 142 

Colorado,  University  of,  Boulder,  Colorado 137 

Colorado  College,  Colorado  Springs,  Colorado 137,  142 

Columbia  University,  New  York,  New  York: 

Barnard  College 137 

Extension   Teaching 148 

School  of  Business 142 

Teachers7  College 146 

Connecticut  College,  New  London,  Connecticut 137 

Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  New  York 137 

Cornell  College,  Mount  Vernon,  Iowa 137 

Denver,  University  of,  Denver,  Colorado 137 

De  Paul  University,  Chicago,  Illinois 142,  148 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania 142 

Fisk  University,  Nashville,  Tennessee 137 

Florida  State  College  for  Women,  Tallahassee,  Florida 137 

Fordham  University,  New  York,  New  York 144 

Georgia,  University  of,  Athens,  Georgia 137,  142 

George  Washington  University,  Washington,  D.  C 137 

Goucher  College,  Baltimore,  Maryland 137 

Grinnell  College,  Grinnell,  Iowa 137 

Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Massachusetts: 

Graduate  School  of  Education 146 

Radcliffe  College  139 

School  of  Public  Health 145 

Hiram  College,  Hiram,  Ohio 138 

Hunter  College,  New  York,  New  York 138,  148 

Idaho,  University  of,  Moscow,  Idaho 138 

Illinois,  University  of,  Urbana,  Illinois 138 

Illinois  Wesleyan  University,  Bloomington,  Illinois 138 

Indiana  University,  Bloomington,  Indiana 138,  142,  148 

Iowa,  State  University  of,  Iowa  City,  Iowa 138 

Johns  Hopkins  University,  Baltimore,  Maryland 145 

134 


OPPORTUNITIES  FOR  TRAINING  135 

PAGE 

Kansas,  University  of,  Lawrence,  Kansas 138 

Kentucky,  University  of,  Lexington,  Kentucky 138 

Knox  College,  Galesburg,  Illinois  138 

Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University,  Stanford  University,  California..  138,  146 

Louisville,  University  of,  Louisville,  Kentucky 138,  145 

Miami  University,  Oxford,  Ohio 138 

Michigan,  University  of,  Ann  Arbor,  Michigan 138 

Minnesota,  University  of,  Minneapolis,  Minnesota 138 

Missouri,  University  of,  Columbia,  Missouri 138,  142,  144 

Mount  Holyoke  College,  South  Hadley,  Massachusetts 138 

Nebraska,  University  of,  Lincoln,  Nebraska 139 

Nevada,  University  of,  Reno,  Nevada 139 

New  School  for  Social  Research,  New  York,  New  York 145 

New  York  School  of  Social  Work,  New  York,  New  York 145 

New  York  University,  New  York,  New  York 142,  148 

North  Dakota,  University  of,  University,  North  Dakota 139 

Northwestern  University,  Evanston,  Illinois 139,  142,  148 

Oberlin  College,  Oberlin,  Ohio 139 

Ohio  State  University,  Columbus,  Ohio 139,  144,  145 

Ohio  Wesleyan  University,  Delaware,  Ohio 139 

Oklahoma,  University  of,  Norman,  Oklahoma 139 

Oklahoma  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College,  Stillwater,  Oklahoma . . .  142 

Omaha,  University  of,  Omaha,  Nebraska 139 

Oregon,  University  of,  Eugene,  Oregon 139 

Oregon  Agricultural  College,  Corvallis,  Oregon 143 

Pennsylvania,  University  of,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania 139 

Pennsylvania  School  for  Social  Service,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania.  . . .  144 

Pennsylvania  State  College,  State  College,  Pennsylvania 139 

Philippines,  University  of,  Manila,  P.  1 139 

Pittsburgh,  University  of,  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania 139,  146 

Pomona  College,  Claremont,  California 139 

Purdue  University.  La  Fayette,  Indiana 139 

Reed  College,  Portland,  Oregon 139 

Rice  Institute,  Houston,  Texas 139 

Rochester,  University  of,  Rochester,  New  York 139 

Rockford  College,  Rockford,  Illinois 139 

Russell  Sage  College,  Troy,  New  York 139,  143 

Saint  Lawrence  University,  Canton,  New  York 140 

School  of  Social  Work  and  Public  Health,  Richmond,  Virginia 144 

Simmons  College,  Boston,  Massachusetts 143,  144 

Smith  College,  Northampton,  Massachusetts 140 

South  Dakota,  University  of,  Vermilion,  South  Dakota 140 

Southern  California,  University  of,  Los  Angeles,  California 140 

Syracuse  University,  Syracuse,  New  York 140,  143,  148 

Tarkio  College,  Tarkio,"  Missouri 143 

Texas,  University  of,  Austin,  Texas 140,  143 

Toledo  University,  Toledo,  Ohio 140 

Tufts  College,  Tufts  College,  Massachusetts: 

Jackson  College  138 

Tulane  University,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana: 

H.  Sophie  Newcomb  College 138 

Utah,  University  of,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 140,  143 

Vassar  College,  Poughkeepsie,  New  York 140 

Vermont,  University  of,  Burlington,  Vermont 140 


136  .  STATISTICAL  WORK 

PAGE 

Washington  University,  St.  Louis,  Missouri 140 

Washington,  University  of,  Seattle,  Washington 140 

Washington,  State  College  of,  Pullman,  Washington 140 

Western  Reserve  University,  Cleveland,  Ohio: 

School  of  Applied  Social  Science 145 

Women's  College  140 

West  Virginia  University,  Morgantown,  West  Virginia 140 

Wheaton  College,  Norton,  Massachusetts 140 

Whitman  College,  Walla  Walla,  Washington 140 

Willamette  University,  Salem,  Oregon 140 

William  and  Mary,  College  of,  Williamsburg,  Virginia 143 

Wisconsin,  University  of,  Madison,  Wisconsin 140,  143,  145 

Wyoming,  University  of,  Laramie,  Wyoming 140,  143 

Yale  University,  New  Haven,  Connecticut 145,  146 

1.  Courses  in  statistics  which  form  a  part  of  a  more  compre- 
hensive schedule  in 

A.     Arts  and  Science  Colleges 

A  student  can  acquire,  by  electing  college  courses  in  statistics 
which  include  practical  laboratory  exercises,  a  working  knowledge 
of  the  elementary  principles  and  the  technique  involved  in  statis- 
tical work  and  some  skill  in  applying  this  knowledge  and  technique 
to  actual  data.  This  will  equip  her  for  a  statistical  clerical  posi- 
tion. If  she  combines  the  courses  in  statistics  with  such  electives 
as  will  give  a  background  for  the  field  in  which  she  will  use  her 
statistical  tool,  she  will  be  the  more  equipped  to  profit  from  her 
experience  and  advance  to  increased  responsibility.  For  planning 
investigations  and  for  the  most  reliable  judgment  in  the  interpreta- 
tion and  evaluation  of  statistical  data,  experience  is  essential  and 
broad  general  preparation  important. 

Among  arts  and  science  colleges,  the  following  offer  undergrad- 
uate courses  of  one  or  two  semesters  in  statistics  in  various  depart- 
ments, as  indicated.  These  courses  are  planned  primarily  as  elect- 
ives in  a  general  course  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts ; 
in  some  instances  they  may  be  elected  singly  by  a  limited  number 
of  students.  Colleges  are  starred  in  which  there  are  also  courses 
for  graduates  only,  or  courses  planned  for  graduates  and  under- 
graduates. 


OPPORTUNITIES  FOR  TRAINING 


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OPPORTUNITIES  FOR  TRAINING  141 

B.     Vocational  and  Professional  Schools 

Courses  in  statistics  in  vocational  schools  are  specifically  planned 
for  use  in  the  vocation  for  which  the  school  prepares.  They  are 
combined  in  such  schools  with  other  specific  courses  rather  than 
with  courses  which  give  a  general  background.  While  planned  for 
the  students  in  a  vocational  course  they  are  valuable  also  for  the 
college  graduate  who  has  spent  his  time  in  college  in  acquiring  a 
general  foundation  and  has  later  chosen  a  specific  field  of  work. 
A  number  of  the  courses  listed  below  have  been  planned  with 
the  graduate  student  particularly  in  mind. 

In  many  of  the  vocational  schools,  especially  the  business 
schools,  courses  may  be  elected  singly  or  special  groups  of  courses 
are  arranged  to  meet  the  needs  of  students  desiring  to  spend  less 
than  a  year  in  full-time  study  or  to  plan  a  special  part-time 
schedule. 

Since  the  courses  in  this  group  are  usually  items  of  a  more  in- 
clusive program,  the  following  classification  includes  simply  the 
name  of  the  school  and  the  department  in  which  the  course  is  of- 
fered with  the  names  of  the  courses. 

BUSINESS  SCHOOLS 

BABSON  INSTITUTE  1.  Mechanical  Drawing 

2.  Calculating  Machines 

3.  Graphic  Methods 

4.  Business  Cycles 

5.  Barometrics 


BOSTON  UNIVERSITY 

College    of    Business     Adminis-  1.  Business   Statistics 

tration  2.  Mathematics    of    Statistics    and 

Investments 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

College   of  Commerce  1.  Statistics     in     the     Service     of 

Business 

2.  Actuarial   Science 

3.  Analysis     of     Corporation     Ac- 
counts and  Reports 

CARNEGIE  INSTITUTE  OF  TECHNOL- 
OGY 

Department   of   Commercial   En-  1.  Statistics 

gineering 

Margaret      Morrison      Carnegie  1.  Elements   of   Statistics 

School,   Department   of   Secreta- 
rial Studies 


142 


STATISTICAL  WORK 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 

School    of    Commerce    and    Ad- 
ministration 


1.  Introduction   to   Statistics 

2.  Statistical   Theory  and   Method 

3.  Methods   of    Statistical   Presen- 
tation 

4.  Managerial  Accounting 

5.  Financial     and     Manufacturing 
Costs  and  Statistics 


COLLEGE  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 
Department        o  f        Secretarial 
Studies 


1.  Statistics 


COLORADO  COLLEGE 

Judson  M.  Bemis  Department 
of  Business  Administration  and 
Banking 

COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 
School  of  Business 


DE  PAUL  UNIVERSITY 
College  of  Commerce 

DREXEL  INSTITUTE 
The  Secretarial  School 


1.  Statistics 

2.  Mathematical  Theory  of  Invest- 
ments 


1.  Business  Statistics 

2.  Analysis     of     Corporation     Re- 
ports 


1.  Elementary  Statistics 
1.  Statistics 


UNIVERSITY  OF  GEORGIA 
School  of  Commerce 


INDIANA  UNIVERSITY 
School      o  f      Commerce 
Finance 


and 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 

School   of   Business   and   Public 
Administration 


NEW  YORK  UNIVERSITY 

School    of    Commerce,    Accounts 
and  Finance 


NORTHWESTERN  UNIVERSITY 
School  of  Commerce 


OKLAHOMA      AGRICULTURAL      AND 
MECHANICAL  COLLEGE 
School    of    Commerce   and   Mar- 
keting 


1.  Statistical    Method    and    Prin- 
ciples 

1.  Business  and  Social  Statistics 


1.  Statistics    and    Business    Prob- 
lems 

2.  Probabilities  and  Statistics 


1.  Statistical  Methods   and  Appli- 
cation 

2.  Business  Graphics 

3.  Analysis     of     Corporation     Re- 
ports 


1.  Statistics  and  Statistical  Meth- 
ods 

2.  Business  Statistics 


1.  Statistics 


OPPORTUNITIES  FOR  TRAINING 


143 


OREGON  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 
School  of  Commerce 


1.  Mathematics  of  Statistics 

2.  Elements  of  Statistics 

3.  Analysis  of  Accounts 


RUSSELL  SAGE  COLLEGE 

School  of  Secretarial  Studies 


1.  Statistics 


SIMMONS  COLLEGE 

School  of  Secretarial  Studies 


1.  Elementary    Methods     of 
tistics 


Sta- 


SYRACUSE  UNIVERSITY 

School  of  Business  Administra- 
tion 


1.  Actuarial  Mathematics 

2.  The  Mathematics  of  Statistics 

3.  Statistics  and  Sociology 

4.  Applied   Psychology 

5.  Mental     and     Social     Measure- 
ments 


TARKIO  COLLEGE 

Course    in    Commerce    and    Fi- 
nance 


1.  Statistics 


UNIVERSITY  OF  TEXAS 
Department     of     Business     Ad- 
ministration 


1.  Business  Statistics 

2.  Actuarial  Mathematics 

3.  Probability 


UNIVERSITY  OF  UTAH 

School    of    Commerce     and    Fi- 


1.  Business  Statistics 

2.  Principles  and  Methods  of  Sta- 
tistics 


COLLEGE  OF  WILLIAM  AND  MARY 
Graduate  Division  of  the  School 
of    Finance    and    Business    Ad- 
ministration 


1.  Statistics 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 
Course  in  Commerce 


1.  Statistical  Method 

2.  Economic  Statistics 

3.  Prices,     Wages     and     Cost 
Living 


of 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 
Division  of  Commerce 


1.  Statistical  Methods 

2.  Business   Statistics 


144  STATISTICAL  WORK 

SCHOOLS  AND  DEPARTMENTS  OF  SOCIAL  WORK 
Undergraduate 


BOSTON  UNIVERSITY 

Department    of    Religious    Edu- 
cation and  Social  Service 

CARNEGIE     INSTITUTE     OF     TECH- 
NOLOGY 

Margaret      Morrison      Carnegie 
School 
Department  of  Social  Work 

FORDHAM  UNIVERSITY 

School  of  Sociology  and  Social 
Service 


1.  Social    Statistics    and   Research 

2.  Statistics   and  Social   Diagnosis 


1.  Social  Statistics 

2.  Social  Investigation 


1.  Social  Statistics 

2.  Social  Research 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 

Missouri  School  of  Social  Econ- 
omy, St.  Louis 

School   of   Business   and  Public 
Administration,  Columbia 

OHIO  STATE  UNIVERSITY 
College  of  Commerce  and  Jour- 
nalism 
Social  Service  Curricula 


1.  Methods  of  Social  Research 

2.  Vital  Statistics 

1.  Methods  of  Social  Research 


1.  Principles  of  Statistics 

2.  Social  Statistics 


PENNSYLVANIA  SCHOOL  FOR  SOCIAL 
SERVICE 

SIMMONS  COLLEGE 

School  of  Social  Work 


SCHOOL    OF    SOCIAL    WORK    AND 
PUBLIC  HEALTH 


1.  Social  Investigation 


1.  Social  Inquiry — Record  and  Re- 
port 

2.  Advanced  Course  in  Research 


1.  Statistics    and    Social    Investi- 
gation 


Graduate 


BRYN  MAWR 

Carola  Woerishoffer  Graduate 
Department  of  Social  Economy 
and  Social  Research 


1.  Seminary  in   Social  Research 

2.  Advanced  Statistics 

3.  Special  Problems  in  Statistics 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 

Graduate  School  of  Social  Ser- 
vice Administration 


1.  Methods    of    Social    Investiga- 
tion 

2.  Social  Statistics 

3.  Statistical   Theory   and   Method 

4.  Methods   of    Statistical  Presen- 
tation 


OPPORTUNITIES  FOR  TRAINING 


NEW     SCHOOL     FOE     SOCIAL    RE- 

SEARCH 


1.  Statistical  Method 

2.  Mathematical  Theory  and  Tech- 
nique of  Statistics 

3.  Economic  Statistics 


NEW     YOKK    SCHOOL    OF    SOCIAL 
WORK  1.  Methods  of  Social  Research 


WESTERN  RESERVE  UNIVERSITY 

School    of    Applied    Social    Sci-  1.  Statistical  Methods 

ence  2.  Statistical  Research 


SCHOOLS   AND   DEPARTMENTS    OF   PUBLIC    HEALTH 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
Curricula  in  Public  Health 


1.  Statistical   Methods   and  Social 
Economics 


HARVARD     UNIVERSITY    AND     THE 
MASSACHUSETTS     INSTITUTE     OF 
TECHNOLOGY 
School  of  Public  Health 


1.  Vital  Statistics 

2.  Research  in  Demography 


JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVERSITY 
School   of    Hygiene    and    Public 
Health 


1.  Introduction  to  Vital  Statistics 

2.  Advanced  Statistical  Theory 

3.  The  Statistical  Measurement  of 
the     Effectiveness      of     Public 
Health  Activities 

4.  Investigations  in  Biometry  and 
Vital  Statistics 


UNIVERSITY  OF  LOUISVILLE 
School  of  Public  Health 


1.  Vital  Statistics 


OHIO  STATE  UNIVERSITY 

Department    of    Public    Health 
and  Sanitation 


1.  Demography 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 
Courses  in  Public  Health 


1.  Public    Health    Administration 
and  Vital  Statistics 


YALE  UNIVERSITY 

Department  of  General  Bacteri- 
ology and  Public  Health 


1.  Principles  of  Vital  Statistics 


146  STATISTICAL  WORK 

GRADUATE    SCHOOLS   AND   DEPARTMENTS   OF   EDUCATION 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  1.  Educational  Statistics 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 


1.  Statistical  Methods,  Applied  to 
Educational  Problems 


HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 

Graduate  School  of  Education 


1.  Educational   Measurement 


LELAND  STANFORD  JR.  UNIVERSITY 


1.  Educational  Statistics 

2.  School    Surveys    and    Measure- 
ments 


UNIVERSITY  OF  PITTSBURGH 
Graduate  School 


1.  Statistical     Studies     in     School 
Administration 

2.  Experimental      and      Statistical 
Studies  in  Education 


TEACHERS  '      COLLEGE,     COLUMBIA 
UNIVERSITY 


YALE  UNIVERSITY 

Graduate  School  of  Education 


1.  Mental  Measurements 

2.  Mental     and     Vocational    Tests 
and  Treatment  of  Results 

3.  Application      of      Psychological 
and  Statistical  Methods  to  Ed- 
ucation 

4.  Advanced     Educational     Statis- 
tics 


1.  Educational  Statistics 

2.  Educational  Measurements 


2.  Special  Courses  in  Extension  Departments  and   Evening 
Schools. 

These  courses  are  especially  designed  for  students  who  are 
working  and  want  to  elect  single  courses  or  for  those  who  want  to 
acquire  specific  information  or  technique  or  skill  without  concomi- 
tants. Since  these  courses  form  separate  units,  there  is  included 
in  the  following  list  with  the  name  of  the  school,  the  requirements 
for  admission,  description  of  course,  length  of  course,  tuition,  and 
credit. 


OPPORTUNITIES  FOR  TRAINING 


147 


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STATISTICAL  WORK 


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STATISTICAL  WORK 


II.     SELECTED  READING  LIST 

The  contents  of  the  following  reading  list  will  give  a  far  more 
comprehensive  conception  of  statistics,  statistical  method,  and  the 
use  of  statistics,  than  has  been  attempted  in  the  brief  statements 
in  this  report.  The  list  is  suggestive  rather  than  exhaustive; 
such  books  have  been  chosen,  in  general,  as  are  within  the  com- 
prehension of  the  lay  person ;  those  which  are  more  technical  will 
nevertheless  have  many  suggestions  for  those  who  seek  to  under- 
stand more  thoroughly  the  opportunities  in  and  requirements  for 
statistical  work. 


GENERAL 

Bailey,  W.  B. 

and 
Cummings,  John 

Meitzen,  August. 


Journal  of  the  Royal  Sta- 
tistical Society. 

Quarterly  Publication  of 
the  American  Statistical 
Association. 

STATISTICAL  METHODS 
Bowley,  Arthur  L. 

Elderton,  W.  Palin 

and  Edith  M. 

King,   Wildford   I. 
Secrist,  Horace. 

West,  Carl  J. 

BUSINESS 

Babson,  Roger  W. 

Copeland,  Melvin  T. 


Statistics. 

A.   C.   McClurg  and   Company,    1917. 

History,  Theory  and  Technique  of 
Statistics,  Translated  by  Roland  P. 
Falkner. 

American  Academy  of  Political  and 
Social  Science,  1891. 


An   Elementary  Manual   of  Statistics. 
London,   1910. 

Primer   of  Statistics. 
London,  1909. 

The  Elements  of  Statistical  Method. 
The  MacMillan  Company,  1921. 

An     Introduction    to    Statistical 

Methods. 

The  MacMillan  Company,  1917. 

Introduction     to     Mathematical     Sta- 
tistics. 
R.  G.  Adams  &  Company,  1918. 


Business   Barometers. 

Babson  Statistical  Organization,  1913. 

Business  Statistics. 

Harvard  University  Press,  1917. 


SELECTED  READING  LIST 


Duncan,  C.  S. 
Mitchell,  Wesley  C. 
Secrist,  Horace. 

SOCIAL  SCIENCE 
Bowley,  Arthur  L. 

Chapin,  F.  Stuart. 
Newsholme,  Sir  Arthur. 

Whipple,  George 
Chandler. 

EDUCATION 

Rugg,   Harold   O. 

PSYCHOLOGY 
Thorndike,   E.  L. 

BIOLOGY 

Davenport,  C.  B. 

Pearl,  Raymond. 


Commercial  Research. 

The  MacMillan  Company,   1919. 

Business  Cycles. 

University  of   California  Press,   1913. 

Statistics  in  Business. 

McGraw  Hill  Book  Company,  1920. 


The     Nature     and     Purpose     of     the 
Measurement   of  Social   Phenomena. 
London,  1915. 

Field  Work  and  Social  Research. 
The  Century  Company,  1920. 

The   Elements  of  Vital  Statistics. 
London,  1892. 


Vital    Statistics,    an    Introduction 
the  Science  of  Demography. 
John  Wiley  and  Sons,  1919. 


to 


Statistical  Methods  Applied  to  Educa- 
tion. 
Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  1917. 


An    Introduction    to    the    Theory    of 
Mental  and  Social  Measurements. 
The  Science  Press,   1904. 


Statistical  Methods  with  Special  Ref- 
erence to  Biological  Variation. 
John  Wiley  and  Sons,  1914. 

Modes  of  Research   in   Genetics. 
The  MacMillan  Company,  1915. 


INDEX 


Page 

Accountant    34 

Accounting     76-78,  102 

Actuarial  Society  of  America.  ...  75 

Actuarial  work   75 

Adjutant  General's  Office 46 

Advantag-es    Ill,  132 

Advertising1 79-81,  119,  127 

Advice  as  to  training1 102-104 

Agriculture,   Department   of, 

50-53,   122,  124 

Agricultural     statistics 38,  101 

American  Association  of   Finan- 
cial   Statisticians    72 

American  Bankers'  Association.  .  81 
American  Economics  Association  55 
American   Electric   Railway   As- 
sociation       82 

American    Red    Cross 91 

American  Statistical  Association, 

11,  55,  86 

Animal  Industry,  Bureau  of 52 

Apprenticeship  Training   101 

Arbitration       and       conciliation 

boards 61 

Army  Transport  Service 47 

Association  of  Collegiate  Schools 

of    Business    64 

Average    13,   19,  20 

Banking    and    Finance.  ..  .71-74,  126 
Banking   and    insurance    depart- 
ments      62 

Banks     71,  84 

Bar  diagrams   22,  27 

Bars    22,  24 

Biology    14,    15,  37 

Biometry    37 

Birth  statistics    37 

Boards  of  trade 81 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry   ....  52 

Bureau  of  business  research.. 64,  87 

Bureau   of  the  Census 53,  124 

Bureau  of  Crop  Estimates   50 

Bureau  of  Education   48,  89 

Bureau  of  Farm    Management 

and   Farm  Economics 52 

Bureau  of  Fisheries    55 

Bureau  of  Foreign    and    Domes- 
tic Commerce 35,  43,  123 

Bureau  of  Labor    Statistics 56 

Bureau  of  Markets    51 

Bureau  of  Medicine  and  Surgery  47 

Bureau  of  Mines     49 

Bureau  of  Navigation     47 

Bureau  of  Public  Roads    51 

Bureau  of  Supplies   and   Ac- 
counts       47 

Bureau  of  War    Risk    Insurance  45 

Bureau  of  Women  in  Industry.  .  58 

Business 62-85,  118,  125,  130 

Business  barometers   86 

Business  forecasts.  .14,  25,  35,  64,  86 

Business  research  bureaus 86 

Business  schools 63,  100,  141 


Page 

Business    statistics    38 

California   Redwood   Association     83 
California  White  and  Sugar  Pine 
Manufacturers'    Association...      83 

Cartogram    21,    24,     29 

Census,  Bureau  of  the 53 

Census,    Advisory    Committee    of     55 
Central  Statistical  Bureau  of  the 

Baltimore  Alliance 91 

Chain-store 69 

Chamber    of    Commerce    of    the 

United  States   83 

Chambers  of  commerce 81 

Chart   22,   23,   26,     27 

Chief  of  computing-  section 33 

Chief  of  Staff,  Office  of 46 

Children's  Bureau    57,     92 

City  boards  of  education 89 

Civil  service 41,  42,  113,  114,   122 

Clerical  work    32,  116 

Clerk    31,     35 

Code     32 

Coefficient  of  correlation 19,     20 

College  appointment  bureaus...    114 
Collegiate     bureaus     of    occupa- 
tions     114 

College   courses   in   statistics, 

96-99,   136-140 

College  training 94,  102,  104,   124 

Commerce,  Department  of 53-56 

Commercial  journals 85 

Commercial  research    69,     70 

Commercial  statistics   68 

Compensation  Board    47 

Comptroller  of  the  Currency.  ...      44 

Computation    25,     27 

Computer 33 

Computing  machines    32,     96 

Congressional  Joint   Commission 
on  Reclassiflcation  of  Salaries  115 

Correlation    20 

Courses  in  Statistics.  .95-101,  136-149 

Crop  Estimates,  Bureau  of 50 

Cross-hatching    26,    29,     33 

Curves    23,   24,   25,     27 

Dairy  products    14 

Death   statistics    37 

Delinquency    15 

Demography 37 

Department  of  Agriculture, 

50-53,    122,   124 

Department  of  Commerce   53-56 

Department  of  the  Interior    ...48-50 

Department  of  Justice   58 

Department  of  Labor    56-58 

Department  of  the  Navy 47 

Department  of  State 43 

Department  of  the  Treasury   ...      43 

Department  of  War    46 

Department  store   69 

Departments     of     charities     and 

corrections    62 

Departments  of  education 62 


152 


INDEX 


153 


Page 

Departments  of  finance 62 

Departments  of  health 62 

Departments  of  justice 62 

Diagram    ...22,  23,  24,   25,   26,   27,      28 
Division  of  Loans  and  Currency     44 

Drafting    34,    96,   104 

Draftsman 33 

Economics    62,     94 

Economics,  Department  of 97 

Economist    14 

Economic  journals   86 

Economic  facts    73 

Economic  research  bureaus 86 

Editor    35,   111 

Education    13,   89,   120,   128,  131 

Education,  Bureau  of 48,     89 

Education,    Department   of 97 

Education,    Schools    and    depart- 
ments  of    146 

Educational  associations 89 

Educational  research 90 

Educational  statistics 38 

Employment  agencies    40,   114 

Employment  reports   115 

English  composition    94 

Experience    94,    95,  105 

Evening  schools,  Courses  in.  .146-149 
Extension   departments,    Courses 

in    146-149 

Farm     Management     and     Farm 

Economics,    Bureau    of 52 

Federal     Board     for    Vocational 

Education   60,     89 

Federal  Government 40,   113,   115 

Federal  Reserve  Board 43 

Federal   trade   census 71. 

Federal    Trade    Commission 60 

Field  investigator 36,  57,  111 

Fields  in  which  statistical  work- 
ers   are    employed 40-93,   130 

Finance    71,    119,   126 

Financial  journals   85 

Financial  statistics   ...38,  72,  73,   103 

Fisheries,    Bureau    of 55 

Foreign      and      Domestic      Com- 
merce, Bureau  of 35,  43,  123 

Foreign   Trade   Adviser 43 

French    94 

General  education   94,   102 

Geological   Survey    49 

Georgia  Florida  Saw  Mill  Asso- 
ciation           83 

German 94 

Government 40,  113,  121 

Government      commissions      and 

boards 59 

Government  departments 40-62 

Graduate   work    102 

Graphical  representation   24-30 

Graphs   23,  24,  25,  27,  34,     35 

History 94 

History  of  statistics 12 

Hollerith   machine    32 

How    positions   are    secured, 

113-115,   132 
Index  numbers   19,     20 


Page 

Indian  Affairs,    Office   of 50 

Industrial   commissions    61 

Industrial   research    67 

Industrial  statistics 38 

Industry   14,  65,  125 

Interpretation   30,     37 

Immigration  Bureau   58 

Insurance   33,  74-76,  119  126 

Interior,    Department   of   the... 48-50 
Interstate     Commerce     Commis- 
sion   59,     77 

Investigator     36,  111 

Investment   firms    73 

Judge    Advocate    General,    Office 

of    47 

Justice,  Department  of 58,     62 

Labor,  Department  of 56-58 

Labor  Statistics,  Bureau  of 56 

Laboratory    96 

Laboratory  worker    34 

Limitations    112,  132 

Mail-order   house    69 

Manufacturing.. 64,  65-68,  70,  118,   125 

Map    21,  27,  29,     34 

Marine  Corps  Headquarters 47 

Markets    51,   66,     68 

Markets,  Bureau  of 51 

Mathematics    94,   102 

Mathematics,  Department  of....  98 
Measurement  of  characteristics.  15 
Medicine  and  Surgery,  Bureau  of  47 
Mental  measurements  ....38,  89,  101 
Michigan  Hardwood  Manufactur- 
ing Association  83 

Migration  statistics 37 

Mines,  Bureau  of   49 

Minimum    wage    15 

Minimum  wage  commission.  .  .61,   122 

Morbidity  statistics   37 

Mortality  statistics    37 

National  Association  for  the 
Study  and  Prevention  of  Tu- 
berculosis    91 

National    Association    of    Cotton 

Manufacturers    81 

National    Association    of    Credit 

Men    81 

National    Committee    for   Mental 

Hygiene    91 

National    Industrial     Conference 

Board    81 

National  Lumber  Manufacturing 

Association    83 

Nature   and   use    of    statistics., 

11-17,  130 

Navigation,  Bureau  of 47 

Navy,  Department  of  the 47 

Navy  Property  Accounting  Office     47 

Newspapers     86 

North  Carolina  Pine  Association     83 
Northern     Hemlock     and     Hard- 
wood  Manufacturing   Associa- 
tion          83 

Northern      Pine     Manufacturing 

Association    83 

Office  of  Naval  Operations 47 


154 


STATISTICAL  WORK 


Page 

Opportunities  for  training-.  ..  134-149 
Opportunity   for    women    in   sta- 
tistical work 100-109,  132 

Packing  house 70 

Periodicals    84 

Pictograms    22,   24,   26 

Pie-chart    27,   28,   34 

Points   21,   24,  27 

Positions  in  statistical  work, 

31-39,  130 

Post  Office   Department 58 

Powers    machine     32 

Preparation  for  statistical  work, 

94,   105,  131 

Prices 14,  20 

Professional    work    36,  111 

Psychology    13 

Psychology,   Department  of 97 

Psychologist   13,  89,  90 

Psychological  research 90 

Public  Health,  Schools  of 99,  145 

Public  Health  Service 44 

Public  Roads,  Bureau  of 51 

Public    utilities     64 

Publishing  companies    81,  86 

Qualifications  required   110-111 

Railroads     64 

Ratios     19 

Reading  list   150 

Reclamation  Service 49 

Research 39,  62,  65,  86,  89 

Research  worker 14,  39 

Salaries    115-120,  133 

Schedule 18,   19,  36 

School  records 15 

Schools,  Business.  .63,  67,  100,  141-143 

Schools  of  agriculture 101 

Schools   of   business   administra- 
tion   64,  87 

Schools   of   education 100,  146 

Schools   of   engineering 101 

Schools  of  public  health 99,  145 

Schools  of  social  work... 99,   144-145 

Secretary   34 

Selected  reading  list 150 

Semi-professional  work   34-36 

Shipping     33 

Silk   Association  of  America.  ...  81 

Social   phenomena    13,  20 

Social  statistics 38 

Social  work 91-93,  119,  128 

Sociology   94 

Sociology,   Department  of 97 

Solids    27 

Southern  Cypress  Manufacturing 

Association    83 

Southern   Pine  Association 83 

Spanish     94 

Special  war  boards 61 

State,   Department  of 43 

State   boards   of   education 89 

State      and     municipal      govern- 
ments   61,  121 

Statistical  accountant    34,  77 

Statistical   clerk    35 

Statistical   draftsman    33 


Page 

Statistical  editor 35 

Statistical   illustrations    25 

Statistical  journals    86 

Statistical  laboratory  worker...  34 

Statistical  machine  operator....  32 

Statistical  method..  12,  13,  18-30,  130 

Statistical  secretary    34 

Statistical    service    organization, 

64,  86-88,  119,  127,  131 

Statistician 14,   36,  39,  40,  116 

Statistics  as  a  science 13 

Statistics  defined 16-17 

Stenography   104 

Stereograms    27 

Subsidiary  work 31,    32,    104,  110 

Supervisor    32,    33,  34 

Supplies    and    Accounts,    Bureau 

of    47 

Surfaces    26,  27,  28 

Surgeon  General,   Office  of  the.  .  46 

Tables 24 

Tabulation 18,  19,  115 

Tabulating  machines 32 

Tariff    14,  59 

Technical  schools   101 

Teaching   statistics    90 

Trade     68-71 

Trade  adviser 14 

Trade  associations.  .64,  77,  81-83,  119 

Trade  investigations   : 66 

Trade   journals    84 

Trade   region    31 

Training    94-105,  134 

Treasury,  Department  of  the.  ...  43 
United  States  Civil  Service  Com- 
mission     41,  42 

United  States  Customs  Service..  45 
United  States  Tariff  Commission, 

59,  123 

Units  of  measurement 18 

Use    of    statistics 11-17 

Variation    13,  21 

Vital   statistics 37,   53,   61,   99,  121 

Vocational    and    professional 

schools   99-101,  141-149 

Wage   records    15 

War,  Department  of 46 

War   Risk   Insurance,   Bureau   of  45 

Weather    Bureau    52 

West   Coast   Lumbermen's   Asso- 
ciation       83 

Western  Forestry  and  Conserva- 
tion  Association    83 

Western  Pine  Manufacturers  As- 
sociation       83 

Wholesale    Dry    Goods    Associa- 
tion      81 

Women  in  Industry,  Bureau  of..  58 
Women  in  statistical  work, 

36,  44,  45,  46,  47,  49,  51,  52,  53, 
54,  56,  57,  58,  60,  61,  62,  67,  68, 
73,  74,  76,  80,  82,  84,  88,  90,  91, 

92,  93 
Writing     Paper     Manufacturers' 

Association    81 

Writing   reports    30 


PUBLICATIONS 

of  the 
BUREAU  of  VOCATIONAL  INFORMATION 


Women  in  the  Law:  an  Analysis  of  Training,  Practice 
and  Salaried  Positions. 

Bureau  of  Vocational  Information 
Studies  in  Occupations,  No.  3,  1920 
Price,  postpaid,  paper  bound       $.60 
cloth   bound     $1.10 

This  report  of  140  pages  gives  information  as  to  the 
educational  requirements  for  admission  to  the  bar  in  each 
state.  It  analyzes  pre-legal  training,  the  training  of 
women  lawyers  and  the  law  schools  of  the  country,  and 
offers  conclusions  as  to  training. 

In  the  discussion  of  the  law  as  a  profession  for  women 
there  is  a  summary  of  what  the  practice  of  the  law  in- 
volves, the  advantages  and  limitations  of  the  profession, 
the  personal  qualifications  required,  entering  the  work, 
specialization,  the  time  required  to  become  self-support- 
ing, income  and  the  experience  of  women  lawyers  to  date 
with  illustrations. 

Twenty-three  pages  are  devoted  to  information  in  re- 
gard to  occupations  other  than  the  practice  of  the  law 
for  which  legal  training  is  a  preparation. 

The  appendix  includes  a  table  of  the  law  schools  which 
admit  women  students ;  a  table  of  the  number  of  women 
admitted  to  the  bar ;  a  list  of  civil  service  positions  in  the 
District  of  Columbia  for  which  legal  training  is  a  prepara- 
tion ;  a  list  of  bar  associations  admitting  women  to  mem- 
bership and  of  women  lawyers'  associations. 


The  Woman  Chemist. 

Bureau  of  Vocational  Information 
Studies  in  Occupations,  No.  4,  1921 
Price,  postpaid,  paper  bound      $.60 
cloth  bound     $1.10 

This  report,  based  on  material  from  nearly  400  sources, 
gives  information  regarding  the  varied  character  and 
wide  scope  of  the  chemist's  work.  It  analyzes  the  pre- 
professional  or  undergraduate  training  and  the  profes- 
sional preparation  that  is  becoming  increasingly  neces- 
sary for  ultimate  success  in  scientific  work  in  this 
profession.  The  suggestions  and  conclusions  in  regard 
to  educational  requirements  are  based  on  both  the  experi- 
ences and  judgments  of  men  and  women  in  this  profession. 

In  the  discussion  of  the  four  general  fields  of  work,  the 
conditions  and  prejudices  to  be  encountered  by  women 
chemists  and  the  advantages  and  limitations  of  the  several 
fields  are  pointed  out.  The  types  of  positions  and  the 
duties  thereof  are  fully  described,  and  the  salary  ranges 
indicated.  Sections  are  devoted  to  the  personal  qualities 
necessary  for  success,  and  the  methods  of  securing  posi- 
tions. In  addition,  there  is  a  general  summary  of  the 
findings  on  special  points. 

In  the  appendix  will  be  found  a  list  of  scientific  societies 
which  admit  women  chemists,  and  a  list  of  the  important 
fellowships,  suggestive  of  the  many  opportunities  for 
postgraduate  study. 


Positions  of  Responsibility  in  Department  Stores  and 
other  Retail  Selling  Organizations:  a  Study  of  Oppor- 
tunities for  Women. 

Bureau  of  Vocational  Information 
Studies  in  Occupations,  No.  5,  1921 
Price,  postpaid,  paper  bound      $.60 
cloth  bound     $1.10 

This  study  contains  an  outline  of  store  organization 
and  a  comprehensive  analysis  of  the  positions  of  responsi- 
bility held  by  women  in  retail  selling  organizations.  It 
shows  for  each  type  of  work  the  duties,  the  training  and 
experience  and  personal  qualities  necessary,  the  salaries 
women  are  receiving,  the  advantages  and  disadvantages 
of  the  work  and  the  future  which  it  holds  for  women. 
Positions  are  considered  in  the  four  great  divisions  into 
which  department  store  work  falls — the  merchandise,  ad- 
vertising, service  and  finance  departments.  More  than 
sixty  distinct  types  of  positions  are  analyzed  and 
discussed. 

The  report,  which  is  based  upon  a  careful  survey  of  the 
field,  contains  information  gathered  from  387  different 
sources,  and  represents  the  point  of  view  of  leading,  pro- 
gressive merchants  as  well  as  of  the  employed  women. 
There  are  sketches  of  the  experiences  of  women  in  de- 
partment store  work,  and  discussions  of  positions  in  allied 
fields  for  which  department  store  work  may  be  considered 
as  preparation.  The  appendix  contains  an  analysis  of 
courses  of  training  for  department  store  executives. 


Vocations  for  Business  and  Professional  Women. 

Bureau  of  Vocational  Information 
Bulletin  No.  1,  1919 
Price,  postpaid,  $.20 

A  forty-six  page  pamphlet  containing  the  essential  facts 
concerning  twenty-six  leading  fields  of  work  for  women. 
Information  about  opportunities,  training,  types  of  work 
and  salaries  is  given  in  compact  form.  The  pamphlet  is 
especially  useful  in  schools  and  colleges,  and  contains 
many  suggestions  for  the  woman  who  has  not  chosen  her 
field  of  work. 


te  Due 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
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